Changes In Water Consumption Research Articles

Analysis of operation of heat exchangers of hot water supply system in the scheme of reliable and safe heat supply of residential buildings

The scheme of internal heat supply of residential buildings with independent connection of the heating system to the external heating networks and connection of the heater of the DHW system in a parallel single-stage arrangement, providing reliability of heat supply and the necessary comfort in the premises due to the unrelated regulation of heat supply for heating, ventilation and DHW even in case of fluctuations in water intake, is considered. A mathematical model describing the non-stationary modes of operation of DHW system heaters under the conditions of implementation of this scheme is constructed and investigated. Calculations were carried out using this model, including numerical simulation on a computer using the Monte Carlo method. It is established that in this case, a decrease in the average heat transfer coefficient of the heater of the DHW system due to fluctuations in the flow of mains water following the daily change in water consumption at the DHW can be neglected, since this decrease lies within the usual error of engineering calculation, despite the fact that this coefficient depends on the flow in a nonlinear way, and its growth during the period of increased water intake for DHW does not fully compensate for the decrease during the reduction of water consumption. At the same time, it is proved that with a characteristic number of heat transfer units in a DHW system heater referred to the heated stream, the total amount of heat transferred can decrease quite noticeably, by an amount of 10 to 12 percent; however, with a rational choice of the heater size, such a decrease is within the limits allowed by the applied factors of margin when setting determination of the heat exchange surface.

The water-food-energy nexus evaluation and optimization of cropping system in the North China Plain: A case of county scale

Water, energy, and food, which are closely related to human beings, have been proposed by the Sustainable Development Goals, and there are closely related but contradictory relationships among the three. As one of China's main grain-producing regions, the North China Plain (NCP) with dominant grain-oriented cropping system is faced with severe challenges for agricultural sustainable development, such as water and energy shortages, as well as grain safeguard. In this study, a “TKL-WEFN” model combining Tapio decoupling, Kaya, and LMDI was used to evaluate the synergistic relationship from the water-energy-food (WEF) and determine the key drivers taking Wuqiao County in the NCP as a case. The results showed as follows: the synergistic relationship between water-food, as well as energy-food, showed a “M” shaped fluctuation trend from 2009 to 2018 in Wuqiao County. The best performance was achieved in 2011 and 2016, with the state of high yield and low resource consumption. Food increased by 9.43% and 3.52%, while water resources decreased by 5.95% and 8.91%, and energy decreased by 5.36% and 2.15% in 2011 and 2016, respectively. The changes in water consumption for irrigation and fossil energy consumption per unit area of maize and cotton, as well as the adjustment of planting structure, are the main factors affecting the sustainability of crop systems from 2009 to 2018. Water-saving irrigation, no-tillage, and cropping system transformation can improve resources supply and demand, saving 4.61%–50.27% (with an average of 19.47%) of water consumption and 1.91%–13.08% (with an average of 6.45%) of energy consumption by scenarios analysis. Therefore, changing grain-oriented cropping system while maintaining food security and developing water-saving irrigation technology can accelerate the realization of green agriculture.

A new framework for evaluating water use reduction strategies using an integrated, holistic, and transparent approach (Urmia Lake basin case study)

Agriculture and food security have always faced challenges related to water scarcity, so agricultural water conservation is the most important strategy for overcoming this challenge. In this study, the REWAS tool developed by FAO and Future Water was used to evaluate the effects of technological and management strategies on real water savings (RWS) in the Zarrineh River sub-basin, Iran. Nine farms were investigated (wheat, corn, tomato, sugar beet), including control and treatment farms. According to changes in water consumption and return flows, RWS was calculated for various scenarios of field interventions. To assess the water consumption in Basin scale, REWAS was simplified the accounting framework for water consumption (consumed and unconsumed). In the Zarrineh River sub-basin, the use of the techniques applied in the treatment farm, compared to the control farm (according to farmer customary practices), resulted in a significant reduction of non-beneficial consumption. For example, according to the REWAS evaluation in West s17 farn, the treatment farm consumed the most useful water compared to the control farm (331 mm and 267 mm, respectively), which led to the most useful water consumption at basin scale (to the order of 3920 mm and 3166 mm). According to the results on the scale of the basin , the highest amount of recoverable discharge was also obtained in the control farm with an increase of 3774 MCM over the treatment farm. Using strategies to reduce water consumption resulted in apparent water saving (AWS) at the farm scale, but these AWS were very different from their RWS at the basin scale and the RWS at the basin scale (13%) was much lower than the AWS at the farm scale (38%). According to the results, apparent water savings (AWS) at the farm scale do not reduce water consumption, and may actually increase it when viewed in a basin scale. REWAS concepts indicate that significant amounts of “lost” water are actually recoverable return flows that can be used by downstream users or contribute to wetlands. According to REWAS concepts, real water savings can only be achieved by preventing non-recyclable backflows. Assessing RWS can help decision makers select sustainable interventions that will improve agricultural water productivity by providing information on farm flows, irrigation networks, and basin scales.

DYNAMICS OF CHANGES OF IRRIGATED CROPLANDS IN THE STATE OF GUANAJUATO, MEXICO

Abstract. Irrigated agriculture requires extensive land areas and consumes high volumes of water. This study aims to determine and analyze the dynamics of irrigated croplands and their water consumption in Guanajuato State, located in the central region of Mexico. Guanajuato is among the Mexican states with the country's most considerable agricultural land extent, with more than half of its territory dedicated to agricultural activities. The work offers an innovative approach by adding official statistical information on irrigated agriculture crops and geospatial data for a considerable period. First, land use and cover change patterns were studied using a multidate land cover cartographic database. We observed some reduction in irrigated areas due to urban expansion; nevertheless, most irrigated regions remained stable over time. After that, we computed the areal evolutions of ten main crops and their associated water consumption. We observed a slight contraction of irrigated agriculture. However, the most notorious changes in water consumption are due to changes in the types of crops and agricultural intensification can burden water scarcity.

Spexin may induce mitochondrial biogenesis in white and brown adipocytes via the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis

AimThe present study aimed to investigate the effect of the intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of spexin on the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis (TRH, TSH, T4 and T3 hormones) and energy expenditure (PGC-1α and UCP1 genes) in white adipose (WAT) and brown adipose tissues (BAT) in rats. Furthermore, the study aimed to determine the effects of spexin on food-water consumption and body weight of rats. Material and methodThe study was conducted with 40 male rats that were divided into 4 groups: Control, Sham, Spexin 30 and Spexin 100 (n = 10). Spexin (1 μl/hour) was administered to rats other than those in the control group for 7 days with osmotic minipumps intracerebroventricularly, artificial cerebrospinal fluid (vehicle) was administered to the Sham group, and 30 nMol and 100 nMol spexin was infused to the Spexin 30 and Spexin 100 groups, respectively. Food-water consumption and body weight of the rats were monitored during the experiments. After the seven-day infusion, the rats were decapitated and serum TSH, fT4 and fT3 levels were determined with ELISA on rat blood samples. Also, TRH gene expression levels from the hypothalamus tissues and PGC-1α and UCP1 expression levels from WAT and BAT were determined by real-time PCR. FindingsIt was determined that icv spexin infusion reduced daily food consumption and body weight without leading to a significant change in water consumption (p < 0.05). Icv spexin infusion significantly decreased serum TSH, and increased fT4 and fT3 levels when compared to control and sham groups (p < 0.05). Moreover, icv spexin infusion increased the TRH expressions in the hypothalamus tissues and PGC-1α UCP1 in the WAT and BAT (p < 0.05). ConclusionIcv Spexin infusion may have effects on food consumption and body weight as well as, thyroid hormones and energy metabolism.

Determination of the circulation flow rate in the calculation of internal hot water supply networks

Calculations of internal ring networks of buildings have always been, are and will be an urgent task. The schemes of internal hot water supply systems change, the number of floors of buildings changes, the location of heating points from which hot water begins its journey to the consumer changes, the definition of water consumption changes, and finally the calculations themselves change, but it is undoubtedly the calculation methods for centralised hot water supply systems that are a key part of creating reliable and economical hot water supply networks in buildings. Modern methods consist of three different calculations: the supply part of the system, the circulation part with the determination of pressure losses in the entire system, and the thermal disinfection mode of the system. The circulation flow rate methodology widely used in Ukraine is based on a 1985 regulatory document and borrowed part of the calculation from the 1992 Polish regulations. As a result, questions arise that are not answered in the DBN. In terms of determining the heat losses of individual sections of the hot water system, not everything is perfect either. A building is designed for a lifespan of 50 years or more with daily, round-the-clock use of heat energy, and the heat consumption for preparation and transportation of hot water is the largest in the building and requires a detailed calculation. The DBN "Internal Water Supply and Sewerage" provides two figures for all cases: 11 and 7 W/m (specific heat losses by pipes of the internal hot water supply network). The calculated surface temperature of the pipes in different parts of the network varies, the air temperature in the premises through which the pipes pass varies, and the diameters of the pipes in certain areas change, but the two figures remain unchanged. Moreover, it is recommended that, regardless of the insulation material used for pipe insulation, the insulation thickness should be at least 10 mm. This may have been appropriate in 1985, when there were no computer programs for calculations and fewer thermal insulation materials, but now it is 2023 and the situation is completely different. The article, after analysing the regulatory documents, proposes a methodology for determining the circulation flow rate and calculating the hot water supply network in the mode of passing this flow rate.

Changes of Water Consumption in a Forester’s Lodge in Polesie National Park (Poland)—Case Study

The object of the present study was to analyse water consumption in a four-person household (park employee housing) located in the village of Kulczyn in Polesie National Park (PNP) in Poland. The wastewater from the buildings was discharged to a hybrid constructed wetland integrated into a closed-loop water system. As part of the study, seasonal, weekly, and daily changes in water consumption and the amount of water used to flush the toilets were determined over a period of one year. It was shown that the average daily water consumption in the entire house was 437 L/d, or 109 L/p/d (litres/person/day). The average daily water consumption per capita was, therefore, similar to that reported for Poland by the European Commission and much lower than that reported for Western European countries (150–250 L/p/d). The highest water withdrawals were recorded in the spring season (March–May) at 117–122 L/p/d, and the lowest in the holiday month of July—88 L/p/d. The highest water consumption levels during the week were recorded on Saturdays—an average of 136 L/p/d, and the lowest on Wednesdays—an average of 92 L/p/d. During the 24 h of a day, the highest water withdrawals were observed late in the evening (10–11 pm) and periodically in the morning (around 10 am), on weekends, and during the holiday period (July and August). It was shown that the amount of water used to flush toilets represented on average about 20% of the total amount of water consumed. This indicates that approximately 88 L/d of water was used to flush the toilets in the homestead under study.

Fast in the pandemic, durable after droughts, inequal during economic downturn. A 20 year multi-dimensional retrospective analysis of water demand change in Southern California

Determining changes in water consumption behavior due to recurring external stressors (e.g. droughts and socio-economic fluctuations) and previously unseen shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic can support future demand-side management (DSM) programs and identifying vulnerable social groups. Yet, most studies analyzing external drivers of water consumption change are noncomparative as they examine only one stressor at the time, mainly droughts. Here we develop a multi-dimensional retrospective analysis (MDRA) to quantify residential water consumption changes in Southern California over the last two decades under compound hydroclimatic, economic, and pandemic stressors. We then uncover what socio-economic groups relate to predominant behavioral changes under each stressor. We observe a long-lasting decreasing water consumption trend for more than 76% of the analyzed households. Socio-economically vulnerable households were more likely to reduce water consumption during the economic and pandemic stressors. Differently, affluent neighborhoods tended to increase water consumption during or after droughts and the pandemic. Our MDRA supports utilities and policy makers to discern the impacts of different stressors on water demand and helps to identify social and economic sensitivities across a service area to develop adaptive DSMs and assistance programs.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Impact Prostatic Collagen Density and Bladder Volume in Young Adult Mice Exposed during in Utero and Lactational Development.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants linked to deleterious health outcomes, including voiding dysfunction in developmentally exposed mice. Changes in prostate volume and/or extracellular matrix composition are associated with voiding dysfunction in men and animal models. Whether PCB-induced changes in voiding function in male mice occur in part via alterations to the prostate or an alternate mechanism is unclear. Therefore, we tested whether developmental exposure to the MARBLES PCB mixture altered prostate morphology in young adult offspring. C57Bl/6J female mice were dosed daily with the MARBLES PCB mixture at 0, 0.1, 1 or 6 mg/kg/d for two weeks prior to mating and through gestation and lactation, offspring were collected at 6 weeks of age. Ventral prostate mass was decreased in the 1 mg/kg/d PCB group compared to other PCB groups. There were no PCB-induced changes in prostate smooth muscle thickness, apoptosis, proliferation, or testes mass. PCBs impacted the prostate extracellular matrix; anterior prostate collagen density was decreased in the 1 mg/kg/d PCB group compared to all other groups. Normalized bladder volume was increased in male and female offspring in the 6 mg/kg/d PCB group compared to control. No change in water consumption, bladder mass or bladder smooth muscle thickness accompanied changes in bladder volume. Urine and serum creatinine concentrations were elevated but only in male mice. Together, these results suggest that developmental exposure to PCBs can influence prostate wet weight and prostate/bladder morphology, but PCBs do not promote prostate enlargement. Whether these changes persist throughout adult life and how they contribute to voiding function in animal models and humans is of future interest.

Spatio-temporal changes in urban water consumption during 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic in southern Brazil

Abstract This study investigated the changes that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic in urban water consumption in residential, commercial, industrial, and public agencies in the city of São Leopoldo, southern Brazil, which has about 55,000 consumers and over 200,000 inhabitants. Overall, the city increased water consumption by 5.6% during the 2-year pandemic, with 5.9% in 2020 and 5.5% in 2021. Residential and industrial consumption increased by 6.77 and 9.92% in the first year, and by 5.47 and 14.45% in the second year, respectively. On the other hand, commercial and public sector consumption decreased by 5.48 and 46.26% in the first year and 1.83 and 40.99% in the second year, respectively. In the first months of the pandemic, there was a sharp increase in residential water consumption at the same time as a reduction in consumption in the other categories. In contrast, there was a slight return to previous water consumption patterns in the following months. Overall, we can affirm that the more central neighborhoods presented higher changes in water consumption than the peripheral neighborhoods. In addition, the water consumption during the pandemic and pre-pandemic periods was statistically different for residential, industrial, and public consumers.

Two years of COVID restrictions: A lesson from water demand data

Abstract The long period of great fragility experienced by the lockdown has strained entire countries. In response to COVID-19, Italy performed stay-at-home orders to attenuate disease spread, provoking drastic changes in all aspects of users' behaviour, particularly affecting water demand. A dataset of hourly water demand for 2019, 2020, and 2021, related to five Italian towns permitted to observe water consumption changes. Trends highlight a general decrease in water consumption, linked to the strict restrictions imposed and a morning peak shift. At the end of the strict quarantine regulations, water consumption did not return to pre-pandemic values because COVID-19 has led to a change in lifestyle.

Trade-off analysis of water conservation and water consumption of typical ecosystems at different climatic scales in the Dongjiang River basin, China

Water conservation is one of the most crucial ecosystem service functions and key to evaluating watershed protection and development. Water consumption is an important part of the water cycle and maintains ecosystem stability. The trade-off relationship between water conservation and water consumption in ecosystems at different climatic scales is a significant scientific issue in hydrological studies. The Dongjiang River basin has a very important strategic position and supplies water to the eastern part of Guangdong Province and Hong Kong. This study conducted a trade–off analysis of the water conservation and water consumption of typical ecosystems in the Dongjiang River basin at different climatic scales using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The results revealed that first, the amount of water conserved in the Dongjiang River basin was far less than that consumed over the past 50 years. Regarding typical meteorological years, water consumption followed the order of wet year &gt; normal year &gt; dry year. Second, the average amounts of annual, wet season, and dry season water consumption were 22.611, 17.943, and 4.668 Bm³, respectively, whereas the average amounts of water conservation were 1.198, 1.609, and −0.411 Bm³, respectively. The water conservation and water consumption of different ecosystems fluctuated significantly between the dry and wet seasons, with stronger fluctuation in the dry season. Third, in terms of ecosystem types, water conservation followed the order of arbor forest &gt; paddy field &gt; other forest &gt; grassland &gt; dry cropland, and water consumption followed the order of arbor forest &gt; other forest &gt; paddy field &gt; grassland &gt; dry cropland. Lastly, the meteorological factor driving changes in water conservation was precipitation, and the factors influencing changes in water consumption were temperature and precipitation. This study can provide theoretical reference for ecosystem protection and sustainable management of water resources, and the results and conclusions have great significance to developments in hydrological research.

Application of persimmon syrup to increase the biological value and organoleptic indicators of bread

One of the factors hindering the widespread use of persimmon syrup in baking is the lack of knowledge of its functional properties for the production of a wide range of bread products due to its chemical composition. Based on this, a study of the method of obtaining persimmon syrup, quantitative changes in the nutritional content of the first-grade “Azamatli-95” wheat flour, persimmon syrup of the “Hyakume” variety, mixtures of wheat flour and persimmon syrup, bread with the addition of persimmon syrup was conducted. It was found that during the hot pre-treatment of persimmon, the pulp yield decreases to 25 %, and the juice yield increases to 67.7 %. The regularity of changes in water consumption for diluting the syrup and for kneading the dough, depending on the amount of syrup added to wheat flour, was revealed. With a 1 % increase in persimmon syrup, the consumption of water for diluting the syrup increases on average by 1.193, and the consumption of water per dough decreases by 1.3 on average. The regularity of the quantitative change of food substances during baking is revealed, which allows correcting their content in mixtures of wheat flour and persimmon syrup, and in bread with additives. It was found that the content of phenolic compounds in bread with the additive increases: in the control sample of bread it was 0.13 g/100 g, and in the samples of bread prepared according to options I, II and III it was 0.4, 0.51 and 0.64 g/100 g, respectively, which is 2.7 times more than in the A95WF-PS5, A95WF-PS10 and A95WF-PS15 mixtures from wheat flour and persimmon syrup. When adding up to 10 % persimmon syrup to the first-grade wheat flour, the organoleptic characteristics of the bread, except for the crumb color, improved. Increasing the amount of added persimmon syrup up to 15 % to wheat flour leads to the deterioration of all organoleptic indicators of bread with the additive. The obtained results give an opportunity to regulate the desired quality of bread and use persimmon syrup as a functional ingredient

Spatial and Temporal Evolution of Vegetation Water Consumption in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas against the Background of Returning Farmland to Forestland

Sustainable development in arid and semi-arid areas is largely constrained by water resources. Expanding ecological space is considered an effective way to conserve water resources. The innovation of this study is the analysis of water consumption in different land-use types from a complete watershed scale, which can evaluate space management against the background of returning farmland to forestland during the past 20 years, and provide suggestions for future space management in semi-arid areas. Based on meteorological data and GIS technology, the current study quantitatively analyzes the spatial and temporal variation characteristics of the water consumption of different vegetation growth stages in the Yanhe River Basin by using the improved Penman formula. The results show that the water consumption of vegetation in the Yanhe River Basin increased from 0.44 km³ in 2000 to 0.68 km³ in 2020. The water consumption of vegetation showed obvious spatial heterogeneity, with the highest value in the central Baota area (1.094 km³) followed by the western Ansai region (0.727 km³), whereas the consumption in the eastern Yanchang area is relatively low (0.483 km³). In addition, the annual average water consumption is (0.381 km³). The cultivated land consumes the most water (0.21 km3), while the woodland consumes the least (0.072 km³). The water consumption per unit area of forested land is the highest, reaching 190 m, and the water consumption of low-coverage grassland is the lowest, only reaching 50 m. Vegetation distribution change could be the main influencing factor of vegetation water consumption change in the Yanhe River Basin. Through the establishment of the sustainable development path of ecological space with water as the core, the high-quality development of ecological environments in arid and semi-arid areas will be achieved.

Using nudges for water demand management: A field experiment for water conservation

With the growing need for water demand management, several nudge-based interventions have been undertaken from March to September 2019 to guide humans toward the socially desirable behavior of conserving resources and reducing the negative environmental impacts in the Tokyo Metropolitan area, Japan. In this study, we provided two types of visualized feedback to the participating households by applying social norms to their water consumption: one that conceptualized water as a public good, and one that compared the household’s usage to that of others by using a bar chart for eight months. We analyzed the change in water consumption of each household using the generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) and found that a nudge that visualized water as a public good was effective in saving water in low-consuming households, whereas a nudge using a bar chart had no impact. In addition, we asked the participants whether the information provided caused any kind of stress after the last feedback. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the nudge method utilized in this study not only does not cause stress among the nudge recipients, but also improved their interest in residential water consumption. Households that received a nudge were less satisfied than the control group because they feel that they were not able to save water.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Urban Water Consumption in the United States

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed how we define “home”, which is recast as the new coffee shop, restaurant, entertainment center, and office during the pandemic. The shift toward working from home led to substantial changes in how consumers behave, affecting the consumption of resources in some cases for years to come. Using data from six water utilities in various states in the U.S., we investigated how water consumption has changed attributable to the implementation of stay-at-home (SAH) orders. The results indicated an overall increase of between 3.08% and 13.65% in daily water consumption during the SAH orders compared to the same period in 2018 and 2019, with the gaps closing as lockdown restrictions eased. The findings also revealed that the changes in water consumption across sectors and user groups were heterogeneous. Specifically, the results showed that total daily residential water demand during SAH orders in 2020 increased significantly, between 11.80% and 13.65%, relative to the same period in 2018 and 2019, but the changes in water consumption for non-residential properties headed in opposite directions with reductions between −22.53% and −45.08%. In addition, we found that the low-income groups did not change their water consumption even with the lockdown.

Consumption Change‐Induced Transients in a Water Distribution Network: Laboratory Tests in a Looped System

AbstractAt the Water Engineering Laboratory of the University of Perugia, Italy, a wide experimental program has been carried out in a polymeric pipe network with two 100 × 100 m square loops. The aim of this program is to analyze the dynamic response of the system to transients caused by a change in water consumption. To emphasize such a response, transients are generated by the complete and fast closure of an end‐user, located at the downstream end of a service line. During tests, the combined effect of simultaneous consumers, whose consumption is varied both deterministically and stochastically, has been analyzed. The tests allow examining the propagation of the generated pressure waves within the network for different water consumption variations and end‐user locations. The lessons learnt from the experimental results may help the water utility managers to identify the reasons for the higher frequency of occurrence and severity of faults in some specific portions of water distribution networks apparently “similar” to others where damages are less frequent and severe.

Water demand in watershed forecasting using a hybrid model based on autoregressive moving average and deep neural networks.

Increasing water demand is exacerbating water shortages in water-scarce regions (such as India, China, and Iran). Effective water demand forecasting is essential for the sustainable management of water supply systems in watersheds. To alleviate the contradiction between water supply and demand in the basin, with water demand for economic growth as the main target, a hybrid moving autoregressive and deep neural network model (ARMA-DNN) was developed in this study, and four commonly used statistical indicators (MAE, RMSE, MSE, and R2) were selected to evaluate the performance of the model. Finally, the validity and practicality of the model were verified by taking the Minjiang River basin in China as an example. The results show that (a) the model can predict future water demand more accurately under the conditions of actual water consumption changes, (b) the ideal agricultural production in the Minjiang River Basin is predicted to be reached 2.26 × 109t in 2021, and (c) the highest industrial economic efficiency in Chengdu is 1.51 × 109yuan, while water satisfaction reaches 102%. This means that effective water demand forecasting can alleviate water demand conflicts under climate change conditions to a certain extent. At the same time, watershed managers can develop different water allocation schemes based on the prediction results of the hybrid ARMA-DNN model.

Water-Saving Tips With a Visualized Indicator Related to the Environment

Water-saving tips are information-based interventions aimed at managing water demand. Studies of the effectiveness of qualitative water-saving tips to explain why and how water should be saved have not always found significant changes in water consumption. Some studies indicate that the addition of quantitative tips and videos are effective for water conservation. This study adds to the literature by attempting to verify the effectiveness of water-saving tips that visualize the amount of water that can be saved using illustrations of bathtubs. Furthermore, as not all people are interested in water saving, we include tips with a visualized indicator related to the environment, which is of more general interest. These tips used CO2 emissions reductions to demonstrate the effect of water saving. As a result, for high-consumption households, it is more effective to present water-saving tips that present information on how their actions can limit CO2 emissions than to illustrate the reduction in water consumption directly. At the same time, for low-consumption households, none of the tips had neither water-saving nor boomerang effects (i.e., increased the consumption while planning to reduce). Households were divided into high-and low-consumption using baseline water consumption per capita for their household size. The results of this study could serve as a tool for water demand management that can be easily utilized in many parts of the world.

The Assessment of Climate Variables and Geographical Distribution on Residential Drinking Water Demand in Ethiopia

Water managers have increasingly shown that demand management solutions are more important than searching for alternative sources to resolve the challenges and shortages of water supply services. This study identifies the impact of climate variables on residential water demand in three geographically and spatially dispersed towns (Arba Minch, Ziway, and Debre Birhan) in Ethiopia. Monthly mean temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation are analyzed using multivariate regression models to identify and evaluate the impacts of the parameters on water consumption. Principal component analysis (PCA) is also used to determine the dominant independent variable affecting the rate of water consumption. Mean temperature is shown to be the dominant variable causing the changes in water consumption in Arba Minch. The water consumption at Debre Birhan is slightly affected by relative humidity. Analyzed climate variables do not affect the water consumption changes at Ziway. The main findings of this paper show that geographical distribution and other determinants are more important determinants of residential water demand. It is concluded that the analyzed climate variables are not the dominant determinants which impact drinking water consumption at the study sites. Thus, it is recommended to include relevant information about the climate variables alongside other determinants in order to enhance the water management system in evaluating and auditing water usage.