Soybean Changes Research Articles

Primary and secondary metabolites variation of soybean contaminated with Aspergillus sojae

Time-dependent primary and secondary metabolite changes of soybean contaminated with Aspergillus sojae and their associations were discussed. Partial least squares discriminant analysis showed that the patterns of fungus infected soybean were clearly distinguished from untreated samples based on its time intervals. A. sojae depends on soybean for its carbon source resulting gradual decrease in the glucose, fructose and myo-inositol levels. The stimulation in l-phenylalanine by A. sojae increases the accumulation of naringenin from days 1 to 6, leading to the changes in genistein pool. Even though the level of glucosides like daidzin, genistin and glycitin decreased during treatment, other isoflavones and coumestan levels enhanced. Due to the increase in glycinol, the resulting phytoalexins such as glyceollin I and glyceollin II augmented by fungal treatment. The changes in secondary metabolites reflects in total phenolic content and because of the increase in glyceollin I, II and glyceofuran reflect their radical scavenging capacity; A. sojae-mediated soybean registered a periodic increase in the radical scavenging activity.

Scientific Opinion on an application (EFSA‐GMO‐NL‐2005‐24) for the placing on the market of the herbicide tolerant genetically modified soybean 40‐3‐2 for cultivation under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 from Monsanto

This Scientific Opinion reports on an evaluation of a risk assessment for the placing on the market for cultivation of genetically modified soybean 40-3-2, and updates the previous EFSA GMO Panel Scientific Opinion on the renewal applications for the continued marketing of soybean 40-3-2. The EFSA GMO Panel considered that soybean 40-3-2 is unlikely to raise additional environmental safety concerns compared with conventional soybean, but that the management of its cultivation could result in environmental harm under certain conditions. The Panel therefore recommended managing the use of glyphosate on soybean 40-3-2 in ways that result in similar or reduced environmental impacts compared with conventional soybean cultivation. There is no evidence of adverse effects on non-target organisms (including pollinators) due to the expression of the CP4 EPSPS protein, and there are no indications of the occurrence of adverse effects on non-target predators, herbivores and decomposers due to potential unintended changes in soybean 40-3-2. Owing to the lack of event-specific data on plant-pollinator interactions, scientific uncertainty on the occurrence of adverse effects on pollinators, due to potential unintended changes in soybean 40-3-2, remains, and strategies for resolving this uncertainty are discussed. The Panel recommended the deployment of case-specific monitoring to address: (1) changes in weed community diversity; and (2) the evolution of resistance to glyphosate in weeds due to changes in herbicide and cutivation regimes. The Panel agreed with the general surveillance plan of the applicant, but requested that the Panel‟s proposals to strengthen general surveillance are implemented. The Panel concluded that the information available for soybean 40-3-2 addresses the scientific comments raised by Member States and that soybean 40-3-2, as described in this application, is as safe as its conventional counterpart and commercial non-GM soybean varieties with respect to potential adverse effects on human and animal health. If subjected to appropriate management measures, the cultivation of soybean 40-3-2 is unlikely to have environmental effects any more adverse than those associated with conventional soybean cultivation.

Prepartal wheat grain feeding improves energy and calcium status of periparturient Holstein heifers

Wheat grain (WG) is unique in possessing extensive starch and nitrogen fermentation (i.e. >85% in ground and steam-processed WG), low cation–anion difference and high-intake properties, making it a potentially useful prepartal dietary choice. The objective was to determine the effects of WG provision to pre-partum first-calf heifers on metabolic, health and productive criteria during the transition period. WG replaced barley grain that was commonly used earlier. Fifteen Holstein heifers at 31 ± 6 days pre partum were blocked based on expected calving date and assigned to three treatments or feeding totally mixed rations containing either (i) barley grain (13.8%) and wheat bran (6.1%), (ii) 10% WG (WG10) or (iii) 18% WG (WG18; dry matter (DM) basis) from 31 days pre partum until calving. In replacing WG for barley grains, some changes in WG use and slight changes in soybean and cottonseed meals use were made to properly formulate balanced rations for net energy for lactation, CP, calcium and P. Prepartal diets contained no supplemental anionic salts. Cows were monitored until 21-day post partum and received the same early lactation diet. The prepartal provision of WG and related dietary changes reduced urine pH at 7-day pre partum, and elevated blood calcium and glucose at 7-day pre partum and at 3-day post partum. Milk fat and protein yields were increased during the 21 days post partum by prepartal WG provision and related diet changes. Blood albumin, globulins, total proteins and urea concentrations were similar among treatments. Feeding diets with WG did not affect body condition score, calving difficulty, calf weight, placenta weight and the time interval from calving to placenta expulsion. It is suggested that prepartal provision of WG with necessary dietary changes led to simultaneous improvements in energy and calcium status of the heifers experiencing their first periparturient phase without compromising parturition status.

Morphological Changes in Soybean under Progressive Water Stress

The aim of the experiment was to investigate and evaluate morphological changes provoked by the progressive water stress on Leaf Relative Water Content (LRWC), height of plant, number of leaves, shoot dry matter, root dry matter in plants of soybean cultivar sambaiba. The experimental design was at randomized entirely factorial, with 2 hydric conditions (stress and control) and 4 stress points (0, 2, 4 and 6 days). It were showed in the plants under water stress drop in LRWC of 81.5 until 60.9% due water deficiency in substrate, the number of leaves increase at both the treatments, it being showed after of 6 days the increase of 24.2 and 44.8% in the plants under stress and control, respectively. It was showed different behavior of the root dry matter in plants under water stress, with higher root matter until the 2 days and lower matter after of this point, when compared with control plants. The study with soybean cultivar sambaiba under progressive water stress reveal that occurred reduction in the parameters from the experiment beginning, however significant morphological changes in the number of leaves and root dry matter were showed only after 6 days of water restriction.

Parallel Genome-Wide Expression Profiling of Host and Pathogen During Soybean Cyst Nematode Infection of Soybean

Global analysis of gene expression changes in soybean (Glycine max) and Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode [SCN]) during the course of infection in a compatible interaction was performed using the Affymetrix GeneChip soybean genome array. Among 35,611 soybean transcripts monitored, we identified 429 genes that showed statistically significant differential expression between uninfected and nematode-infected root tissues. These included genes encoding enzymes involved in primary metabolism; biosynthesis of phenolic compounds, lignin, and flavonoids; genes related to stress and defense responses; cell wall modification; cellular signaling; and transcriptional regulation. Among 7,431 SCN transcripts monitored, 1,850 genes showed statistically significant differential expression across different stages of nematode parasitism and development. Differentially expressed SCN genes were grouped into nine different clusters based on their expression profiles during parasitism of soybean roots. The patterns of gene expression we observed in SCN suggest coordinated regulation of genes involved in parasitism. Quantitative real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction confirmed the results of our microarray analysis. The simultaneous genome-wide analysis of gene expression changes in the host and pathogen during a compatible interaction provides new insights into soybean responses to nematode infection and the first profile of transcript abundance changes occurring in the nematode as it infects and establishes a permanent feeding site within a host plant root.

Temperature dependence of the autoxidation and antioxidants of soybean, sunflower, and olive oil

Effects of temperature on the autoxidation and antioxidants changes of soybean, sunflower, and olive oils were studied. The oils were oxidized in the dark at 25, 40, 60, and 80 °C. The oil oxidation was determined by peroxide (POV) and p-anisidine values (PAV). Polyphenols and tocopherols in the oils were also monitored. The oxidation of oils increased with the oxidation time and temperature. Induction period decreased with the oxidation temperature; 87 and 3.6 days at 25 and 60 °C, respectively, for sunflower oil. The activation energies for the autoxidation of soybean, sunflower, and olive oils were 17.6, 19.0, and 12.5 kcal/mol, respectively. Olive oil contained polyphenols at 180.8 ppm, and tocopherols were present at 687, 290, and 104 ppm in soybean, sunflower, and olive oils, respectively. Antioxidants were degraded during the oil autoxidation and the degradation rates increased with the oxidation temperature of oils; for tocopherols, 2.1 × 10−3 and 8.9 × 10−2%/day at 25 and 60 °C, respectively, in soybean oil.

Respons Fisiologi Beberapa Genotipe Kedelai yang Bersimbiosis dengan MVA terhadap Berbagai Tingkat Cekaman Kekeringan

Present research was aimed to study physiological changes of soybean which were inoculated with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (VAM). Glomus etunicatum was exposed to moderate and severe drought condition. Symbiotic association with VAM improved adaptability as it was shown by the increasing leaf proline content. The MLG 3474 and Sindoro are the more tolerant genotypes while the responses of plant to VAM on improving the adaptability to drought were larger on Lokon.

The Physiologic Response of Soybean Genotypes to VAM Inoculation on Selected Drought Stress Levels

Present research was aimed to study physiological changes of soybean which were inoculated with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (VAM). Glomus etunicatum was exposed to moderate and severe drought condition. Symbiotic association with VAM improved adaptability as it was shown by the increasing leaf proline content. The MLG 3474 and Sindoro are the more tolerant genotypes while the responses of plant to VAM on improving the adaptability to drought were larger on Lokon. Key words: Soybean, mycorrhiza, drought, proline

37 Leaf Temperature and Photosynthetic Changes in Soybean and Cotton under Various Irrigation Treatments

37 Leaf Temperature and Photosynthetic Changes in Soybean and Cotton under Various Irrigation Treatments

Physiological changes in soybean (Glycine max) Wuyin9 in response to N and P nutrition

SummaryPhosphorus deficiency is a very common problem in the acid soil of central China. Previous research has shown that starter N and N topdressing at the flowering stage (Rl) increased soybean (Glycine max) yield and N2 fixation (Gan et al, 1997, 2000). However, there is little information available concerning soybean response to P‐fertiliser in soybean production in central China (Gan, 1999). A field experiment was conducted to investigate the response to P (0 kg P ha−1, 22 kg P ha−1, 44 kg P ha−1 before sowing) and N fertiliser application (N1: 0 kg N ha−1, N2: 25 kg N ha−1 before sowing, N3: N2 + 50 kg N ha−1 at the V2 stage and N4: N2 + 50 kg N ha−1 at the R1 stage) on growth, yield and N2 fixation of soybean. Both N and P fertiliser increased growth and seed yield of soybean (P < 0.01). Application of basal P fertiliser at 22 kg P ha−1 or 44 kg P ha−1 increased total N accumulation by 11% and 10% (P < 0.01) and seed yield by 12% and 13% (P < 0.01), respectively, compared to the zero P treatment. Although application of starter N at 25 kg N ha−1 had no positive effect on seed yield at any P level (P > 0.05), an application of a topdressing of 50 kg N ha−1 at the V2 or R1 stage increased total N accumulation by 11% and 14% (P < 0.01) and seed yield by 16% and 21% (P < 0.01), respectively, compared to the zero N treatment.Soybean plants were grown on sterilised Perlite in the greenhouse experiment to study the physiological response to different concentrations of phosphate (P1: 0 mM; P2: 0.05 mM; P3: 0.5 mM; P4:1.0 mN) and nitrate (N1: 0 mM with inoculation, N2: 20 mM with inoculation). The result confirmed that N and P nutrients both had positive effects on growth, nodulation and yield (P < 0.01). The relative importance of growth parameters that contributed to the larger biomass with N and P fertilisation was in decreasing order: (i) total leaf area, (ii) individual leaf area, (iii) shoot/root ratio, (iv) leaf area ratio and (v) specific leaf area. The yield increase at N and P supply was mainly associated with more seeds and a larger pod number per plant, which confirmed the result from the field experiment.

MEASUREMENT OF CHANGE IN SOYBEAN PLANT CROSS–SECTIONAL AREA UNDER WIND CONDITIONS VIA IMAGE PROCESSING

An innovative method to study plant crosssectional area changes under wind conditions is presented. Changesin soybean (KS3494) plant crosssectional area at different wind velocities were studied using imageprocessing techniqueswith photographs taken in a wind tunnel. Three stages of greenhousegrown soybean plants (V4, V6, and V8) and four windvelocities (6, 7, 8, and 9 m/s) were used. Changes in plant crosssectional area were computed in comparison to plants withno wind applied. Plant images were processed in the KHOROS imageprocessing system, and the percentage change of plantcrosssectional area before and after wind application was calculated and analyzed. The results showed that plantcrosssectional areas decreased linearly with increased wind velocity over the range tested. Plants in V4 and V6 growth stageswere not significantly different in plant crosssectional area changes, but they were significantly different from plants in theV8 growth stage.

Phosphorus nutrition and water deficits in field-grown soybeans

Phosphorus and water deficits are important limiting factors in agricultural production. A field experiment was carried out with soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) to determine whether the effect of water stress on field-grown soybean changes with soil P availability, and whether soil water content affects plant P nutrition. The soil was a Sadler series (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Glossic Fragiudalf) located at Princeton, Kentucky, USA (37°60′ north, 87°60′ west). The experiment was a factorial with three levels of soil P availability (4, 19 and 32 mg kg−1, Mehlich III) and two of water (irrigated and non-irrigated). Most of the effects of phosphorus and water stress on soybean growth were additive, so that, in general, effects of water stress were similar at each P level. Phosphorus deficiency slowed vegetative development, reduced shoot growth, LAI, P absorption and concentration, seed number, size and yield, and increased root length density in the surface soil. Water stress accelerated crop maturity, reduced shoot growth, LAI, P absorption and concentration, seed number, size and yield, and increased root length density. Some interactions between P and water were observed. Water stress slowed vegetative development only at the lowest P level (P0). The crop had a positive response to increasing P availability in both situations, with and without irrigation, suggesting that P addition would be justified even when a dry growing season is likely to occur.

Industrial production of soy sauce

Soy sauce is a seasoning agent with a salty taste and a distinct aroma suggestive of meat extracts. The sauce is made by fermentation of a combination of soy beans and wheat in water and salt. This paper covers the method for production of fermented soy sauce, and that for acid-hydrolysis of defatted soy bean proteins. The microorganisms involved in soy sauce production, and biochemical and chemical changes in soy bean and wheat during fermentation influence greatly the sensory attributes and quality of soy sauce. Recent progress in industrialization of soy sauce manufacture is discussed.

Physiological changes in soybean treated with ozone and molybdenum

Abstract An open‐top field chamber experiment was conducted to evaluate the impact of Molybdenum (Mo) addition to soil on the physiological changes in soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) exposed to ozone (O3). Plants grown with Mo (0, 1.0, or 2.0 mg kg1 soil dry weight) were exposed to O3 (O, 0.06, or 0.12 μmol mol‐1) in open‐top field chambers for 12 h d‐1 for 21 d with a N‐free fertilizer, during the sensitive growth stage (R2). The rate of photosynthesis (PN), specific root nodule nitrogenase activity (SNA), leaf nitrogen (N), chlorophyll (chl‐a, chl‐b) and biomass of soybean were measured. The increase in O3 levels significantly reduced PN, SNA, leaf‐N, chl‐a, chl‐b, and biomass. Addition of Mo increased leaf‐N, shoot, root, and nodule dry weights but did not change PN, SNA, or chlorophyll. The addition of Mo (2 mg kg ‐1) helped in significantly increasing PN and chlorophyll in the presence of 0.06 umol mol‐1 O3 but no change was observed in the presence of 0.12 μmol mol‐1 O3.

Mapping results of crop growth simulation in a vector space

Crop growth models can be used to address the mode-of-action of the global change impacts on crop yield as well as to predict the extent of the yield change. Presented in this paper are the framework to analyze the simulated yield change caused by the variations of many influencing factors and some methods to visualize the yield change. In the framework, the simulated yield change is mapped into an n-dimensional vector space, where n is the number of the simulated cases, e.g. years or locations. Yield changes owing to the individual impacts as well as the impact of simultaneous changes in all the factors are represented by vectors in the n-dimensional space. Contributions of the individual impacts to the simulated yield change and the interrelations between the impacts can be represented by the magnitude and orientation of the vectors. To visualize the vectors, however, the dimension n must be three or less. This is not the case, in general, and hence some methods are needed to reduce the dimension. By combining the influencing factors into three or less groups, the vectors for each group can be visualized in a subspace of dimension three or less. Impacts within each group may be further visualized in the same way. Taking an average is another way to reduce the dimension of the vector space. With it, the n-dimensional space is partitioned into a one-dimensional space for the mean and an ( n - I)-dimensional space for the deviation of the yield change. These methods were applied to an example of the simulated yield changes in soybean and maize owing to climate change (precipitation increase and temperature rise) and elevated CO 2 (increases in the radiation use efficiency and the water use efficiency). The analyses revealed the differences between soybean and maize with respect to their responses to the simulated impacts of the climate change and the elevated CO 2. These inter-specific differences were related to the differential changes in growth processes. The difference between the two impacts, i.e. the climate change and the CO 2 increase, was also addressed. Utilities of the above approach were discussed and compared with the sensitivity analysis. Limitation of this approach was also discussed.

Photosynthetic changes in soybean with and without nitrogen and increased carbon dioxide

An experiment was conducted to measure changes in the rate of photosynthesis (PN), chlorophylls a and b (Ch-a, Ch-b) and biomass on exposure of soybean ( Glycine max L. Merrill) to carbon dioxide (Co 2, 350, 400, 450 μl/l) with and without the use of nitrogen (N) fertilizer. Plants were exposed to CO 2 in open-top field chambers at the flowering stage for 12 h/day for 5 days. The increase in CO 2 levels, with or without N-fertilizer had no impact on PN. Chlorophyll content increased (by 28%) on exposure to 450 μl/l CO 2 in the absence of the N-fertilizer. Ratio of Ch-a/Ch-b was higher in plants treated with N-fertilizer. The total biomass increased (by 18%) on treatment with 450 μl/l CO 2; the root/shoot ratio increased significantly on the addition of the N-fertilizer.

The Anaerobic Response of Soybean

The effect of anoxia on roots of soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr., variety ;Williams') was studied at various levels and the results compared to those from previously studied species. While alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity is induced in a manner similar to other plant species, other aspects of the anaerobic response are unique to soybean. A variety of molecular clones was used to analyze changes in soybean and maize RNA levels. Increased RNA accumulation was observed in both species with a maize ADH clone, while a maize aldolase and one of the two different maize glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase cDNA clones showed induction only in maize. A maize sucrose synthase 1 clone showed induction in maize but no hybridization to soybean RNA samples. The reduction in the number of anaerobically inducible soybean genes relative to maize is consistent with in vivo and in vitro protein synthesis results. Only four major proteins are labeled during anoxia in soybean, one corresponding to ADH, while maize has been reported to have about 20. In either species, in vitro translation yields similar products with RNA from anaerobic and pre-stress plants, indicative of translational control during anoxia. These results are discussed in relation to the differential tolerance of maize and soybean to anaerobic stress.

Chemical and nutritional changes in soybean during germination

Germination of soybeans for 6 days depressed the trypsin inhibitor activity by 32%. Oil content, acid value, iodine value and total unsaturated fatty acids of soybean oil decreased while peroxide value and total saturated fatty acids pronouncedly increased. Percentage of palmitic and linoleic fatty acids were highly affected during germination. Analysis of the hydrocarbon and sterol classes revealed n-tricosane and β-sitosterol to be, respectively, the major components. Marked changes in both hydrocarbon and sterol constituents occurred upon germination. Different periods of soybean germination increased non-protein nitrogen and decreased reducing sugars. However, total ash content decreased due to soaking; thereafter it was constant for the rest of the germination period. Different amino acid components increased due to germination when compared with their content in dry seeds. The protein solubility of germinated soybean was higher in H 2 O, 5% NaCl and 0·02 m NaOH than it was in ungerminated seeds. Water and oil absorption, emulsification and foaming capacities of soybean were increased after germination. A marked improvement in digestibility by pepsin was noticed while tryptic digestibility was still low (38%). PAGE patterns showed drastic changes in both low and high molecular weight protein fractions due to germination.

Effect of Pollutant Dose on the Response of Mexican Bean Beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to So2-induced Changes in Soybean

Larvae of the Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna varivestis Mulsant, grew larger when fed on soybean foliage fumigated for 24 h with SO/sub 2/ at concentrations of 131 to 1834 ..mu..g m/sup -3/ than when fed on nonfumigated leaves. Relative weight gain was not linear against SO/sub 2/ concentration in the range sampled; it was greatest when leaves were fumigated with ca. 786 ..mu..g m/sup -3/ and less pronounced at either higher or lower concentrations. Smaller relative weight gains, also having a maximum at a concentration of approximately 786 ..mu..g m/sup -3/, were found when larvae were reared on foliage allowed 24 h in which to recover from fumigation. No effect on growth was observed when plants were fumigated with 65 ..mu..g m/sup -3/, indicating a threshold for effect between 65 and 131 ..mu..g m/sup -3/ under the conditions of these tests. Change in the plant induced by fumigation, as indicated by growth response of the insects, was rapid, occurring in less than 6 h when plants were fumigated at a concentration of 1310 ..mu..g m/sup -3/; recovery of the plant from an exposure was slow relative to response time.

DNA changes involving repeated sequences in senescing soybean (Glycine max) cotyledon nuclei

Age‐related DNA changes in soybean (Glycine max L. cv. Ransom) cotyledon nuclei were investigated by Feulgen cytophotometry and cloned DNA probes. The amount of nuclear DNA in 17‐day‐old senescing cotyledons was 23% lower than that of 5‐day‐old young cotyledons. In order to understand the nature of senescence‐related DNA loss, fragments of repetitive DNA from young cotyledons were cloned into Escherichia coli HB101 cells by DNA recombination. The cloned DNA probed changes in specific repeated nucleotide sequences in senescing cotyledons. The colony hybridization between cloned DNA and [32P]‐labeled total DNA from 5‐ and 17‐day cotyledons indicated loss of specific repeated sequences. The selected sequences of repeated DNA further showed a loss in their copy numbers. The study suggested that some repetitive DNA sequences were degraded selectively in the genome of senescing cotyledons.