Gender Differences In Changes Research Articles

Seven Decades of Gender Differences in German Voting Behavior

This article describes long-term changes in gender differences in voting behavior in Germany, using a globally unique data source: information from real ballots. Compared with self-reports in available surveys, actual votes counted by gender and age groups have three advantages: neither representativeness issues nor social desirability bias, a huge sample, and coverage of seven decades, beginning in 1953. Besides party-specific voting patterns, I analyze summary measures for gender dissimilarities, both overall and separated by age groups. The modern gender gap—women voting more left-wing than men—first appeared in Germany in the 2017 election, surprisingly late compared with previous international research. The speed and structure with which the modern gender gap grew suggest that it is due to period effects rather than cohort effects. The modern gender gap differs by age group and, in post-World War II Germany, women and men have never been as divided about politics as the youngest voters in 2021. These findings partly contrast with previous survey-based results. To explore whether this contrast stems from the smaller sample sizes of previous studies or gendered survey bias (e.g., more social desirability bias among women), I compare results from real ballots with estimates from two survey data sources. Findings suggest that large surveys might provide reasonable estimates at the aggregate level but might overestimate the gender gap for more radical parties such as the AfD (Alternative for Germany).

Changes in gender differences in household poverty in Kenya

Gender poverty differences in households are likely to affect female-headed households more than male-headed households. This paper examined the evolution of the gender poverty rate gap and identified the factors that underlie differences in poverty rates between female-headed households and male-headed households using the most recent representative household surveys conducted by the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics in 2005/06 and 2015/16. An extended Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis with nonlinear regression was performed. The findings indicate that poverty rates for female-headed households and male-headed households declined from 38.56 to 32.73% in 2005/06 to 30.23 and 26.04% in 2015/16, respectively. Although female-headed households (1.12) have a higher chance of falling into poverty than male-headed households (0.95), the decline in the poverty rate was higher for female-headed households (8.33%) than for male-headed households (6.69%). Therefore, the results do not support the feminization of poverty hypothesis in Kenya. Factors that have bridged the gender poverty gap include cash transfers that explain 11.02% of the gaps, literacy (53.97%), university education (10.39%), secondary education (40.84%), employment in public and private sectors (26.66%) and business employment (10.58%). Recommended policies include the implementation of the gender policy and affirmative action, enhancing literacy levels, and secondary and university enrolment.

Abstract MP38: Gender Differences In Temporal Trends Of Cardiovascular Health In Young US Adults

Introduction: Favorable cardiovascular health (CVH) in young adulthood has been associated with lower future cardiovascular risk. Characterizing the gender-stratified temporal trends of CVH among younger adults may better inform opportunities for earlier prevention. Therefore, we assessed persistence of gender differences in overall CVH and individual component in young US adults. Methods: Based on the National Health Examination and Nutrition Survey data 2007-2018, we identified 10,206 individuals aged 20 to 39 years. Gender and sociodemographic measures were self-reported. The CVH was assessed based on the American Heart Association’s Life’s Simple 7 metrics. Changes in the mean number of ideal CVH components (out of 7) and the ideal proportion of individual component were calculated using weighted linear regression analysis. Changes in gender differences were assessed with an interaction term between gender and calendar year. Results: The mean [SD] age of the study population was 29.3 [5.8] years, and 5,260 (51.5%) individuals were female. Between 2007 and 2018, the mean [95% CI] ideal CVH component remained unchanged in both females (4.40 [4.27-4.52] to 4.48 [4.34-4.61]; P value=0.94) and males (3.97 [3.86-4.08] to 3.93 [3.76-4.10]; P value=0.87) with stable gender differences ( P for interaction=0.94). Nonetheless, gender differences in blood pressure widened ( P for interaction <0.001) as ideal blood pressure decreased (54.0% to 46.9%; P value=0.03) only in males. Concurrently, the proportion of females with ideal physical activity level declined (57.3% to 49.4; P value=0.04) whereas stagnant in males ( P for interaction=0.03). Non-smoking increased in females (64.1% to 70.5%; P value=0.05), otherwise unchanged in males ( P for interaction=0.01). Conclusions: Gender disparities in CVH have persisted with exacerbated differences in blood pressure, physical activity, and smoking. These insights provide opportunities to promote equitable CVH and to address disparities.

Analysing Changes in Gender Difference in Learning in Rural India over Time

In this paper we use data from three rounds (2009, 2012 and 2014) of the ASER survey in order to analyse the changes in gender differences in learning outcomes over time for children belonging to rural India. Despite the existing literature on gender differences, this study is the first to analyse such changes over time for the Indian context. We find that gender differences in learning continue to exist and that these differences have increased over time in favour of boys. Decomposition analysis suggests that only a small percentage of the gender difference in performance can be explained by the differences in the observed characteristics across the two groups. We also find that our results are heterogeneous across different levels of mother’s education and regions. Our findings highlight upon the failure of the recent interventions by the Indian Government in reducing existing gender differences and a move away from the stated objective of achieving gender equality in learning outcomes as under the Dakar Framework for Action. Besides, an increase in the gender difference in learning might further substantiate the existing gender difference in related education and labour market outcomes.

Using Time-Varying Effect Modeling to Examine Age-Varying Gender Differences in Coping Throughout Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

PurposeLittle is known about how and when coping trajectories differ between males and females. The current study aimed to examine gender differences in the use of specific coping strategies across developmental ages using time-varying effect modeling (TVEM) in a large, diverse community sample. MethodsA longitudinal study following adolescents across 4 years of high school and 5 years post graduation (N = 1,251) was combined with a nationally representative cross-sectional study of 18- to 22-year-olds (N = 595) to examine changes in gender differences in the use of coping strategies between ages 13 and 25. The same coping questionnaire was administered to both samples. TVEM was used to examine the age-varying prevalence rates of coping in males and females. ResultsGender differences were greatest during middle-to-late adolescence (15–19 years) for active coping, social support seeking, planning, and venting emotions. Females reported greater use of these strategies than males, but males' use increased over time and became equivalent to females after the age of ~19–20. Gender differences in the use of humor did not emerge until the age of 22, at which point the use of humor increased continuously among males but remained stable among females. The use of denial was fairly stable across time, with no gender differences at any age. ConclusionsFindings highlight the utility of TVEM for advancing our knowledge on gender and coping across developmental time, as males and females used coping strategies at differing rates throughout adolescence and emerging adulthood. Implications for tailoring gender- and age-specific intervention efforts to improve coping and related health behaviors are discussed.

Girls get smart, boys get smug: Historical changes in gender differences in math, literacy, and academic social comparison and achievement

Girls’ lack of self-belief has frequently been cited as a major barrier to advancement in both empirical research and in the popular imagination. With girls now outcompeting boys at almost every educational level, this paper considers if girls still have lower self-concept than boys, if this changes when controlling for academic ability, and what mechanisms explain gender differences. We compare and contrast rational choice, contrast, and assimilation approaches to self-concept and juxtapose historical trajectories in gender differences in self-concept and achievement to distinguish between them. We do this in five age cohorts born between 1981 and 1993 (N = 66, 522) for math, literacy, and general academic domains. Results suggest that there are still significant differences in self-concept between equally able boys and girls and that a mix of assimilation and contrast mechanisms likely explains the size and direction of these effects.

Do not forget the boys – gender differences in children living in high HIV-affected communities in South Africa and Malawi in a longitudinal, community-based study

ABSTRACTGender is an important factor in child development. Especially in sub-Saharan Africa, girls have often been shown to be less likely to access education compared to boys. The consequence of this has been that that programmes addressing child development are often aimed at girls in order to redress gender imbalances. This study examines the effect of gender on the development of children attending community-based organisations in high HIV-affected areas, and explores whether community-based organisation attendance was associated with any changes in gender differences over time. Baseline data from 989 children and 12–15 month follow from 854 (86% response rate) were used to examine gender differences in children from Malawi and South Africa. At baseline, where there were differences by gender, these tended to disadvantage boys. It was found that boys were significantly more often found to be subjected to violence. Boys showed worse performance at school and more behavioural problems than girls. These gender differences persisted from baseline to follow-up. At follow-up, boys self-reported significantly worse average quality of life than girls. Only harsh discipline differed by gender in progression over time: boys experienced a stronger reduction in harsh physical discipline than girls from baseline to follow-up. Since harsh discipline was associated with boys’ worse educational outcomes and behavioural problems, our data cautiously suggests that gender differences could be reduced over time. In conclusion, our data suggests that, perhaps due to the narrow equity approach focusing on provision for girls, boys may be overlooked. As a result, there are some specific experiences where boys are generally worse off. These differences have distinct ramifications for the educational and emotional development of boys. A broader equity approach to child development might be warranted to ensure that the needs of both girls and boys are considered, and that boys are not overlooked.

Occupations and the evolution of gender differences in intergenerational socioeconomic mobility

This paper analyzes intergenerational mobility experiences of daughters and sons with respect to their fathers’ occupational status and documents changes in gender differences over time. While women have been in occupations with lower overall earnings potential, men are more likely to be in occupations characterized by long hours and low returns. The mobility gap in earnings has been closing and a mobility advantage with respect to education has been emerging.

児童の性差と年齢における 静的立位足圧中心動揺変数の発達的変化

［目的］本研究の目的は，児童の静的立位における足圧中心（CoP）動揺変数を自然対数への変換や体格的因子により正規化し，回帰直線の決定係数から発達的変化の妥当性および年齢と性差の影響を検討することである。 ［方法］４歳から９歳までの健常児童３６４名と健常成人４０名を対象とした。対象児（者）には，開眼（EO）と閉眼（EC）の２条件で静的立位のCoP 動揺を各２０秒間測定した。分析項目は，総軌跡長，矩形面積および外周面積とした。各分析項目は実測値，自然対数値および体格的因子による正規化（総軌跡長／身長，矩形面積／（足長×足幅），外周面積／（足長×足幅））で構成した。統計解析では，各分析項目を従属変数，性別と年齢を共変量として共分散分析を行った。 ［結果］EO とEC ともに矩形面積と外周面積それぞれの正規化値に性別と年齢との主効果がみられ，またEC では性別・年齢との交互作用がみられた。また，共分散分析から得られた回帰直線の決定係数は，実測値，自然対数値および正規化値の中で正規化値が最も高い結果であった。 ［結論］９歳以下のCoP 動揺はEO およびEC ともに女子よりも男子が不安定性を示すが，１０歳以降のEC では男子よりも女子が不安定に推移すると考えられた。CoP 動揺変数において，身長および足長と足幅の積による正規化は，実測値や自然対数値よりも児童の発達的変化を捉えることに有効であると考えられた。

Explaining new trends in the gender gap of mortality: Insights from a regional trend- analysis of the Netherlands

The recent decrease of the male-female mortality gap in Western Europe has been accompanied by changes in the life style, educational level, family roles and employment of women. In this paper we try to find out whether a relationship indeed exists between the increase in gender equality and the decrease in the male/female mortality difference. We used regional-level data for the Netherlands for the periods 1980-83 and 1996-99 on gender differences in life expectancy, by age group and cause of death, and various measures of gender inequality on the same regional level. In doing this we followed as far as possible a framework recently developed by Ingrid Waldron to analyse changes in gender differences in mortality in the US. The cross-sectional analyses showed that in 1980-83 it was rather socioeconomic than gender role variables that were important in explaining gender difference in mortality, while in the period 1996-99, it was the other way around.

The U.S. Gender Pay Gap in the 1990S: Slowing Convergence

Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, the authors study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. They find that changes in human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger positive effect on women's relative wages in the 1980s than in the 1990s, explaining part of the slower 1990s convergence. However, the largest factor was a much faster reduction of the “unexplained” gender wage gap in the 1980s than in the 1990s. The evidence suggests that changes in labor force selectivity, changes in gender differences in unmeasured characteristics and in labor market discrimination, and changes in the favorableness of demand shifts each may have contributed to the slowing convergence of the unexplained gender pay gap.

The U.S. Gender Pay Gap in the 1990s: Slowing Convergence

Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, we study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. We find that changes in human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger positive effect on women's relative wages in the 1980s, explaining a portion of the slower 1990s convergence. However, the largest factor was that the unexplained gender wage gap fell much faster in the 1980s than the 1990s. Our evidence suggests that changes in labor force selectivity, changes in gender differences in unmeasured characteristics and in labor market discrimination, as well as changes in the favorableness of demand shifts each may have contributed to the slowing convergence of the unexplained gender pay gap.

An international comparison of women's occupational health issues in the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Canada, Hong Kong and Singapore: the CIDA-SEAGEP Study

An international comparison study of women's occupational health issues was carried out in 2000 for the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Canada, Hong Kong and Singapore. The study was funded by the Canadian International Development Agency's Southeast Asia Gender Equity Program. The objective was to compare the issues, risk factors, social determinants, and challenges in women's occupational health, according to the status of economic development as defined by the World Bank. Data were collected through 27 key informant interviews of high-ranking government officials and senior researchers, self-administered questionnaires on country or regional statistics and 16 courtesy calls. Results indicated that women's occupational health problems common in these countries or regions included women's long hours of work (double workday), shift work and a caring role for family and friends. Problems reported in developing countries but not developed countries included poor access to training and protective equipment, and insufficient legislation to protect women's rights. Problems reported in developed countries but not in developing countries included obesity, smoking and not including women in health research. This paper provides insights into the changing environment in the workplace, such as increasing participation of women in the paid workforce and changes in gender differences due to the changing country economy, for improving women's occupational health.

Gender Differences in the Practice and Enjoyment of Humour in Norway

In recent Norwegian society we can observe great changes in the use and the apprehension of humour, both in the mass media and in the daily life of people. Changes occur in the expectations, practice and evaluation of humorous communication. The focus in this article is on the changes in gender differences as regards humour. Creating my sources through fieldwork and distributing detailed questionnaires, I have been careful to establish a body of material that reflects experiences and views held by the informants. The possibility of applying an internal perspective to the relationship between humour and gender gives an opportunity to concretize and qualify theoretically based knowledge of gender differences. In the main the reflections of the informants verify nor knowledge of gender patterns in the use and interpretation of humour, but at the same time they demonstrate the variety of apprehensions inherent in this extensive field of communication.