Changes In Ecosystem Services Research Articles

A multiscale perspective on how much wetland restoration is needed to achieve targets for ecosystem services

Percentage-based targets for conservation and restoration provide a compelling narrative for enhancing nature and human wellbeing. However, evidence is still lacking for what these percentage targets should be, especially for improving multiple ecosystem services. Furthermore, restoration targets can be challenging to implement across decision-making scales. We explored these challenges in the Ruamahanga Basin in the North Island of Aotearoa New Zealand, where ∼98% of wetlands have been drained. We created restoration scenarios that increase the percentage area of wetland restored at two spatial scales: first, across the entire Ruamahanga Basin, and second, using subcatchments delineated from the contributing areas of individual historical wetlands. These scales allow us to adopt the decision-making perspective of basin-scale managers/planners as well as groups/individuals restoring single wetlands. At each scale, we estimate gains and losses towards plausible targets for nitrogen and phosphorus retention, carbon storage, and agricultural productivity using the high-resolution, ecosystem service modelling tool, LUCI. At the basin scale, ecosystem service changes were incremental, showing linear trends through to full wetland restoration. We found no percentage value at which restoration did not add benefits for nutrient retention and carbon storage and no percentage value at which restoration did not detract from agricultural productivity. Within subcatchments, gains in phosphorus retention were achieved across all restoration percentages. Nitrogen retention targets were mostly met when the percentage of wetlands restored exceeded 60%. Contrasting outcomes at two different scales showed that most of the variability in ecosystem service outcomes is found at fine spatial scales, rather than at the basin scale, which has implications for choice of policy mechanisms and spatially-targeted management of ecosystem services.

Land Use and Ecosystem Services Evolution in Danjiangkou Reservoir Area, China: Implications for Sustainable Management of National Projects

The South-to-North Water Diversion Project (SNWDP) is one of the largest cross-basin and cross-region water transfer projects in the world. The Danjiangkou reservoir area, a haven of diverse species, serves as a core water source for the Central Line of the SNWDP. Yet, less research has been conducted on changes in land use and ecosystem services (ESs) in the Danjiangkou reservoir area in the context of the implementation of the SNWDP and other national projects. In this study, we aim to reveal evolutions of land uses and ESs in the Danjiangkou reservoir area and the response of ESs to natural and socio-economic factors. This is essential to enhance the regional sustainable management of the Danjiangkou reservoir area. Based on classified land use maps and the InVEST model, we first analyzed the land use changes and evaluated three typical types of ESs (i.e., water yield (WY), carbon storage (CS) and habitat quality (HQ)) in the Danjiangkou reservoir area during 2000 to 2018. Then, we detected the spatial clustering characteristics and tradeoffs and synergistic relationships of multiple ESs through hot spot analysis and correlation analysis. Finally, we adopt the geographical detector model (GDM) to identify key driving factors of ESs changes. The results show that: (1) During 2000–2018, the area of arable land and woodland decreased by 1.65% and 0.8%, respectively, while the proportion of construction land and water area increased by 1.31% and 1.39%, respectively. (2) The greatest decrease was in WY, decreasing by 59%, while the change in HQ was relatively stable, but showed spatial heterogeneity. (3) The northern, southern and western districts of the reservoir area showed mainly synergies among multiple ESs, while other regions showed mainly trade-offs. (4) Road network density, proportion of construction land and normalized difference vegetation index are the leading factors for ESs variations. These findings can provide reference for formulating more reasonable ecological protection strategies, so as to realize the sustainable management of SNWDP and its headwaters region.

Changes in and driving forces of ecosystem services in tropical southwestern China

Tropical forests provide important ecosystem services and biodiversity for the world. With human activities and economic growth, tropical forests are becoming the primary sources of new plantations, making tropical regions hotspots of ecosystem service degenerations and biodiversity losses. Understanding the driving forces of ecological consequences is the key to local sustainable development and human well-being improvements. Therefore, we spatially quantified the changes in ecosystem services in tropical China in the past twenty years by remote sensing and InVEST model. The driving forces were further investigated by using Geodetector. We found that: 1) in the past twenty years, the area of evergreen broad-leaved forests, coniferous forests, and rubber forests have increased by 13.01%, 43.39%, and 101.23%, respectively. The shrublands and agricultural lands are the major contributors to these increased areas; 2) with the area increasing of forests, carbon storage and soil retention have increased by 9.40% and 0.30%, while nitrogen export and water yield have decreased by 43.30%, and 12.27%. This pattern of increase in carbon storage and soil retention was found in the highlands, while not in the lowlands, where large areas of evergreen broad-leaved forests have been converted to rubber forests; 3) NDVI was highly correlated to the carbon storage (q value = 0.201) and nitrogen export (q value = 0.109), while slope and precipitation mainly affected the soil retention (q value = 0.253) and water yield (q value = 0.073), respectively. This study provides a reference for ecological protection and management in tropical China.

Review on Driving Factors of Ecosystem Services: Its Enlightenment for the Improvement of Forest Ecosystem Functions in Karst Desertification Control

Understanding the multi-scale and multi-factor driving mechanisms of ecosystem services (ES) change is crucial for combating the severe degradation of the ecosystem. We reviewed 408 publications on ecosystem structure, biodiversity, and plant functional traits related to ES in forest ecosystems. Strategies were proposed and key scientific issues were pointed out to improve the forest ecosystem in the karst desertification area. The results showed that the total number of publications has increased rapidly since 2014, of which biodiversity studies contributed the majority. China, the USA, and Germany were the top three countries, accounting for 41%, 9%, and 6% of the research, respectively. Further review found that structure, species diversity, and functional traits have an apparent effect on ES at different (macro, meso, and micro) scales. The optimization of tree structure contributes to the improvement in ES provision and the regulation capacity. Species diversity plays an important role in provision services, while functional diversity is equally important in regulation services. Plant root functional traits can not only help regulation services but also determine the species and structure of rhizosphere microbial communities. The response of ES to a certain factor has been extensively reviewed, but the interaction of multiple driving factors needs to be further studied, especially in how to drive the supply capacity of ES in multi-factor and multi-scale ways. Clarifying the driving mechanism of ES at different scales will help to improve the supply capacity of the ecosystem and achieve the goal of sustainable development.

Spatiotemporal evolution of ecosystem services and its potential drivers in coalfields of Shanxi Province, China

Coal contributes considerably to economic and social development. Its economic benefits have been in focus, whereas the ecosystem services (ESs) that coalfields provide have been largely neglected, and the research on driving force is not deep enough. We estimated soil conservation level, water yield, and habitat quality using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs model; evaluated carbon sequestration using the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford approach; and quantified windbreak and sand fixation using the revised wind erosion equation, based on multi-source data from coalfields in Shanxi Province, China, from 1986 to 2020. Additionally, we identified the dominant effects of the single drivers, and their interactions on ESs, using the geographical detector model. Thereafter, the relative contribution of natural factors and anthropogenic disturbance to ESs was quantified. The results showed that (1) The functions of soil conservation, water yield, carbon sequestration, and windbreak and sand fixation greatly improved, whereas the habitat quality decreased slightly from 1986 to 2020. (2) Changes in soil conservation were mainly influenced by temperature, precipitation, digital elevation model (DEM), population size, construction land area, coal mining intensity, industrial output, and land use intensity. Variations in water yield were mainly governed by temperature, precipitation, DEM, population size, construction land area, industrial output, and coal mining intensity. Variations in carbon sequestration were mainly affected by temperature, precipitation, slope, and coal mining intensity. Changes in windbreak and sand fixation services were mainly influenced by temperature, precipitation, slope, DEM, construction land area, coal mining intensity, industrial output, and land use intensity. Changes in habitat quality were mainly influenced by precipitation, slope, DEM, population size, coal mining intensity, industrial output, and land use intensity. (3) The impacts of the interactions between natural and human factors on ESs were more remarkable than those of a single factor. Furthermore, the contribution of natural factors to changes in ESs was dominant, whereas that of human factors was relatively small. Efficient coordination between natural and human forces, as well as ESs, is essential for the long-term evolution of the coalfield ecosystem. Such efforts will provide a scientific foundation for developing land reclamation and ecological restoration.

Evaluating the impacts of inter-basin water transfer projects on ecosystem services in the Fenhe River Basin using the SWAT model

Inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects have been widely constructed to alleviate the pressure on water resources in water shortage basins. However, the ecological effects of IBWT projects have often been ignored. Based on the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model and a constructed total ecosystem services (TES) index, the impacts of IBWT projects on recipient basin ecosystem services were analyzed in this study. The results showed that the TES index was relatively stable from 2010 to 2020, but in the wet season it was 1.36 times that of the other months with high water yield and nutrient loads. Spatially, areas with high index values were mainly distributed in the sub-basins around the reservoirs. The IBWT projects had positive impacts on ecosystem services, and the TES index with IBWT projects was 5.98% higher than that without projects. Water yield and total nitrogen were the two most affected indexes, with increased of 5.65% and 5.41%, respectively, under the impacts of IBWT projects. Seasonally, the change rates of the TES index were less than 3% while the change rates of water yield and nitrogen load peaked at 8.23% and 53.42%, respectively, in March, owing to the large amount of water released from the reservoirs. Areas affected by the three evaluated IBWT projects accounted for 61%, 18%, and 11% of the watershed, respectively. Under the impact of each project, the TES index generally increased, whereas the impact decreased as the distance from the inflow location increased. Intense changes in ecosystem services occurred in sub-basin 23, the sub-basin closest to an IBWT project, with water yield, water flow, and local climate regulation increasing the largest.

How do coastal residents perceive past and future changes in a Mediterranean lagoon ecosystem services?

Coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of ecosystem services (ES) subject to strong human pressure and are included in conservation policies that aim to increase their resilience. Implementing resilience measures requires knowledge of the public perceptions of social-ecological systems so that commitment to environmental protection may be enhanced. Few studies address public perception of the evolution of social-ecological systems and integrate the diversity of ES (regulating, provisioning and cultural). This article is based on a survey of 476 inhabitants and deals with their perceptions of past (50 years) and future (+15 years) ES. It focuses on the Thau lagoon (French Mediterranean) that offers many ES and where managers prioritize traditional uses such as shellfish farming and fishing. Respondents' answers were compared with the results of scientists' and experts’ evaluations to assess the level of public knowledge. The results indicate consistency in the qualitative and quantitative responses of local residents concerning the long-term evolution of ES and show them to have a fairly sound knowledge. However, there are some differences in trends with substantial variation for several ES probably related to judgement or anchoring biases. Furthermore, a majority of local residents had a mixed perception of local structuring ES. This innovative approach to the perceptions of ES momentum suggests that improved conservation policies must: (i) take into account the different communication and awareness requirements of people and (ii) integrate local knowledge through dialogue.

Deforestation Drivers Across the Tropics and Their Impacts on Carbon Stocks and Ecosystem Services

Globally, deforestation produces anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, contributing substantially to climate change. Forest cover changes also have large impacts on ecosystem services. Deforestation is the dominant type of land cover change in tropical regions, and this land cover change relates to distinct causes recognized as direct deforestation drivers. Understanding these drivers requires a significant effort. Further, GHG emissions due to deforestation are quantified only in terms of biomass removal, while linking emissions from soil organic carbon (SOC) loss to deforestation is lacking. A closer picture of associated ecosystem service changes due to deforestation is also needed. We analyze for 2001–2010: (1) the magnitudes of deforestation drivers, (2) the related carbon loss, and (3) the ecosystem service value change. On the global scale, agriculture (90.3%) is the primary deforestation driver, where grassland expansion contributed the most (37.5%). The deforestation drivers differ in magnitude and spatial distribution on the continental scale. The total carbon loss by biomass removal and SOC loss accounted for 8797 Mt C and 1185 Mt C, respectively. Furthermore, tropical deforestation caused the ESV loss of 408 billion Int.$ year^{-1}, while the resulting land cover has the ESV of 345 billion Int.$ year^{-1}. Our findings highlight that agriculture substantially contributes to global carbon loss and ecosystem service loss due to deforestation. The deforestation drivers differ in magnitude and distribution for different continents. Further, we highlight the danger of putting a monetary value on nature.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Ecosystem Services Driven by Human Modification over the Past Seven Decades: A Case Study of Sihu Agricultural Watershed, China

Understanding the effects of human modification on ecosystem services is critical for effectively managing multiple services and achieving long-term sustainability. The historical dynamics of ecosystem services are important for detecting the impacts before and after intensive modification and deserve further study. To this end, we quantified the spatiotemporal dynamics of 11 ecosystem services across the Sihu agricultural watershed in 1954, 1983, 2001, and 2018. We used the Spearman coefficient, self-organized maps clustering, and redundancy analysis to explore the spatial patterns and potential modification drivers of temporal variations of ecosystem service provision. The results revealed the following: (1) The spatial correlations among ecosystem services in a single year were inconsistent with the ecosystem service change associations during two-time steps. The snapshot correlations at one time led to misunderstandings (such as water yield and runoff control or soil carbon sequestration, and habitat quality changed direction from synergy to trade-off) and missed synergies (such as water purification and recreational potential); (2) Most ecosystem services could be synergetic in one bundle with multifunctionality before intensive modification, but later transformed to single or limited services dominated bundles, especially in lake-polder areas; (3) Lake reclamation and hydraulic infrastructure were the most significant modification indicators explaining the variation of ecosystem services (30.9% of variance explained by lake reclamation in 1954, 38.2% of variance explained by hydraulic infrastructure in 2018). Meanwhile, changes in dominant drivers also indicated the transition from lake-based ecosystem service supply to engineered service. An improved understanding of the spatiotemporal pattern of ecosystem services and the underlying human modification influence is vital for realizing the sustainability and multifunctionality of agricultural watershed.

Impacts of human activities on the supply of marine ecosystem services: A conceptual model for offshore wind farms to aid quantitative assessments

Increased pressures from human activities may cause cumulative ecological effects on marine ecosystems. Increasingly, the study of ecosystem services is applied in the marine environment to assess the full effects of human activities on the ecosystem and on the benefits it provides. However, in the marine environment, such integrated studies have yet to move from qualitative and score-based to fully quantitative assessments. To bridge this gap, this study proposed a 4-tiered method for summarizing available knowledge and modelling tools to aid in quantitative assessments of ecosystem services supply. First, the ecosystem functioning mechanisms underlying the supply of services are conceptually mapped. Second, the impacts of the human activity of interest are summarized and linked to the first conceptual model in a case-specific model of ecosystem services supply. Third, indicators are selected that would best represent changes in the most important parameters of the conceptual model in a quantitative manner. Fourth, the knowledge gained in the previous steps is used to select models that are most useful to quantify changes in ecosystem services supply under the human pressure of interest. This approach was applied to the case study of offshore wind energy in the Belgian part of the North Sea, which is one of the most rapidly expanding industries in the marine environment globally. This study provides a useful tool to proceed towards quantification of marine ecosystem services, highlighting the need for a fully integrated approach to developing environmental impact assessment tools.

Evidence of time-lag in the provision of ecosystem services by tropical regenerating forests to coffee yields

Restoration of native tropical forests is crucial for protecting biodiversity and ecosystem functions, such as carbon stock capacity. However, little is known about the contribution of early stages of forest regeneration to crop productivity through the enhancement of ecosystem services, such as crop pollination and pest control. Using data from 610 municipalities along the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (30 m spatial resolution), we evaluated if young regenerating forests (YRFs) (less than 20 years old) are positively associated with coffee yield and whether such a relationship depends on the amount of preserved forest in the surroundings of the coffee fields. We found that regenerating forest alone was not associated with variations in coffee yields. However, the presence of YRF (within a 500 m buffer) was positively related to higher coffee yields when the amount of preserved forest in a 2 km buffer is above a 20% threshold cover. These results further reinforce that regional coffee yields are influenced by changes in biodiversity-mediated ecosystem services, which are explained by the amount of mature forest in the surrounding of coffee fields. We argue that while regenerating fragments may contribute to increased connectivity between remnants of forest fragments and crop fields in landscapes with a minimum amount of forest (20%), older preserved forests (more than 20 years) are essential for sustaining pollinator and pest enemy’s populations. These results highlight the potential time lag of at least 20 years of regenerating forests’ in contributing to the provision of ecosystem services that affect coffee yields (e.g. pollination and pest control). We emphasize the need to implement public policies that promote ecosystem restoration and ensure the permanence of these new forests over time.

Association between ecological risks and ecosystem services in an urban agglomeration in arid China

Rapid urbanization leads to changes in ecosystem services and may exacerbate ecological risks. Clarifying the relationship between these two factors in a specific context is essential to explore the integrated management model and achieve sustainable regional development. However, previous studies mainly lack an integrated analysis, fail to clearly explain the mechanism of ecosystem change, and can neither support landscape ecological security construction nor spatial planning and management. This study, using the urban agglomeration on the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountains (UANSTM) as an example, applied multi-source data from 2010 to 2020, investigated the changes and relationships between ecological risks and ecosystem services, and proposes an assessment framework. The total ecosystem services (TES) of the studied agglomeration showed a decreasing trend, with an overall loss of 0.43%. Corresponding to the decrease of ecosystem services, the ecological risk was higher in the south and north of the UANSTM and lower in the northwestern, central, and eastern regions. The proportion of ecological high-risk areas was expanding. The key to the relationship between ecological risks and ecosystem services is the change in hydrological conditions. Therefore, we suggest that the UANSTM actively transforms the development and use mode of water resources and coordinates their allocation, aiming to reduce regional ecological risks and optimize the pattern of ecosystem services.

Impact of protected area management on local communities: A perspective of recreational ecosystem services

The environmental effects of protected area (PA) management have been widely examined; however, the socioeconomic impact of PAs on local communities is not understood well. This study used the Three-River-Source National Park as a case study area to examine how changes in recreational ecosystem services (RES) affect local communities due to PA management by applying a mixed method, including comprehensive indices, spatial statistics, and the Q method. The results indicate that certain local communities have lost advantages in RES utilization owing to changes in RES delivery caused by facilities and spatial restriction policies. Some of these communities are at a high risk of becoming impoverished again. Communities that have experienced the disappearance or decline of advantages in RES utilization present pessimistic attitudes toward ecotourism development, government support, and sustainable livelihood. This study provides theoretical contributions and practical implications for PAs managers.

Impact of land use and land cover on urban ecosystem service value in Chandigarh, India: a GIS-based analysis

Abstract Assessing the effects of land use and land cover (LULC) on ecosystem service values (ESVs) is critical for public understanding and policymaking. This study evaluated the impacts of LULC dynamics on ESVs in Chandigarh city of India. The assessment of LULC changes was performed by analyzing the satellite imagery of the study area for the years 1990 and 2020 with different band combinations in ArcGIS (10.8 version software). In addition, we analyzed ecosystem services changes which were based on the LULC classes of the study area. Five LULC classes were identified in the present study area (Water bodies, forest and vegetation, built-up, agriculture and shrubland and open spaces). The results demonstrated (from 1990 to 2020) that the forest cover and agricultural areas decreased by 4.19% and 37.01%, respectively, whereas the built-up area substantially increased by 104.61%. Overall, ESV decreased by 2.54% from 1990 to 2020 due to rapid urbanization. The combination of LULC and ecosystem services valuation can increase our understanding of different issues of an urban ecosystem. Hence, we recommend the integration of LULC and ecosystem services valuation as a tool that could provide information to policymakers, urban planners and land managers for sustainable use in future.

How do natural and human factors influence ecosystem services changing? A case study in two most developed regions of China

Understanding the mechanisms that influence changes in ecosystem services (ESs) is critical to the sustainable management of ecosystems. However, existing studies ignore the different importance of influencing factors of ESs in different periods and do not consider the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of influence factors. In this study, we first quantified six ESs for the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and Pearl River Delta (PRD) in 2000 and 2020 based on remote sensing data, including water yield, grain production, climate regulation, air purification, biodiversity, and recreation. Then, eight factors influencing ESs were selected from natural and human perspectives, and random forest was used to determine the importance level of factors influencing ESs. Finally, the GTWR model was used to explore the spatial and temporal differentiation of factors influencing ESs. The results showed that the spatial variation of the six ESs in the YRD and PRD was irregular from 2000 to 2020. In 2000, natural factors (forest, topography, climate) dominated the regional ESs, while in 2020 human factors (population, economy, human activities) gradually replaced the dominance of natural factors on ESs. The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of multiple influence factors on ESs in the YRD and PRD is significant, and we interpret the ecological implications in detail and propose a series of policy recommendations. The results of this study could provide an important reference for scientific guidance to enhance ecological sustainability in developed regions.

Impact of Land-Use Change on Ecosystem Services in the Wuling Mountains from a Transport Development Perspective.

Transportation significantly affects regional land-use changes and ecosystem service functions. Exploring the correlations among transport development, spatial pattern of land-use changes, and ecosystem service changes are important for mitigating the deterioration of regional ecosystems due to human activities. In this study, 2000-2020 was selected as the study period to explore the effects of land-use changes on the ecosystem service value (ESV) in the Wuling Mountains. The results showed that: (1) the Wuling Mountains have experienced four stages of transport development and (2) transportation development has contributed to land-use change. The spatial pattern associated with construction land growth has evolved due to transport development. Garden land has gradually spread into the entire region with transport development. Policies from different periods have had more of an effect on ecological land and cropland. (3) During the study period, the ESV first increased and then declined. The periphery of the transportation axis formed a concentration zone of ESV cold spots. In contrast, ESV hot spots were more concentrated in areas along the Yangtze River. The results of this study provide guidance for land-use policy and spatial planning under the concept of green development.

Alien species and climate change drive shifts in a riverine fish community and trait compositions over 35 years

Alien fish substantially impact aquatic communities. However, their effects on trait composition remain poorly understood, especially at large spatiotemporal scales. Here, we used long-term biomonitoring data (1984–2018) from 31 fish communities of the Rhine river in Germany to investigate compositional and functional changes over time. Average total community richness increased by 49 %: it was stable until 2004, then declined until 2010, before increasing until 2018. Average abundance decreased by 9 %. Starting from 198 individuals/m2 in 1984 abundance largely declined to 23 individuals/m2 in 2010 (−88 %), and then consequently increased by 678 % up to 180 individuals/m2 until 2018. Increases in abundance and richness starting around 2010 were mainly driven by the establishment of alien species: while alien species represented 5 % of all species and 0.1 % of total individuals in 1993, it increased to 30 % (7 species) and 32 % of individuals in 2018. Concomitant to the increase in alien species, average native species richness and abundance declined by 26 % and 50 % respectively. We identified increases in temperature, precipitation, abundance and richness of alien fish driving compositional changes after 2010. To get more insights on the impacts of alien species on fish communities, we used 12 biological and 13 ecological traits to compute four trait metrics each. Ecological trait dispersion increased before 2010, probably due to diminishing ecologically similar native species. No changes in trait metrics were measured after 2010, albeit relative shares of expressed trait modalities significantly changing. The observed shift in trait modalities suggested the introduction of new species carrying similar and novel trait modalities. Our results revealed significant changes in taxonomic and trait compositions following alien fish introductions and climatic change. To conclude, our analyses show taxonomic and functional changes in the Rhine river over 35 years, likely indicative of future changes in ecosystem services.

The Financial and Environmental Consequences of Renewable Energy Exclusion Zones

As countries decarbonise, the competition for land between energy generation, nature conservation and food production will likely increase. To counter this, modelling, and sometimes energy policies, use exclusion zones to restrict energy deployment from land deemed as important to society. This paper applies the spatially-explicit ADVENT-NEV model to Great Britain to determine the cost imposed on the energy system when either environmental or food production exclusion zones are applied. Results show that exclusion zones impose a cost of up to £0.63 billion (B), £19.17 B and £1.33 B for the solar, wind, and bioenergy pathways. These costs give an indication of the value being placed on protecting these areas of land. When multiple exclusions are imposed on bioenergy, the high pathway is infeasible indicating a more flexible approach may be needed to meet net zero ambitions. The model also shows how the value of ecosystem services changes when exclusion zones are applied, highlighting how some exclusions increase non-market costs whereas others decrease them. In several cases exclusion zones are shown to increase social costs, the opposite of their intended use. For these exclusions to be justifiable, the unobserved values missing from the model must be as large as these increases.

Towards a standardized protocol to assess natural capital and ecosystem services in solar parks

AbstractNatural capital and ecosystem services have emerged as fundamental concepts of ecosystem management strategies in the past two decades, particularly within major international land assessment frameworks, including the UN's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services' Global Assessment Report.Despite the recent development of several analytical methods and models to quantify changes in natural capital and ecosystem services resulting from land use change, incorporating them into the land planning process can be challenging from a practical point of view without guidance on standard methods.In an attempt to decarbonize energy supply systems to meet internationally agreed targets on climate change, solar energy production, in the form of ground‐mounted solar parks, is emerging as one of the dominant forms of temporary land use for renewable energies globally.We propose 19 directly measurable indicators associated with 16 ecosystem services within three major stocks of natural capital (biodiversity, soil and water) that are most likely to be impacted by the development of solar parks. Indicators are supported by well‐established methods that have been widely used in pure and applied land use research within terrestrial ecosystems. Moreover, they can be implemented flexibly according to interest or land management objectives.Whilst not intended as a precise recipe for how to assess the effects of solar park development on hosting ecosystems, the protocol will guide the solar energy industry and all actors involved, be they researchers, practitioners, ecological consultancies or statutory bodies, to implement a standardized approach to evaluate temporal and spatial changes in natural capital and ecosystem services resulting from solar park development and operation, with the ultimate aim of generating comparable and reproducible data on ecosystem impact assessment across the solar energy sector.

Spatio-temporal evaluation of ecosystem services in the São Paulo Macrometropolis, Brazil

Urbanization is one of the key factors that drive changes in ecosystem services. Although various studies have analyzed relationships between land-cover change and ecosystem services degradation, few have explored the impacts in future scenarios in mega metropolitan areas. This work performed an individual and integrated spatio-temporal assessment of four ecosystem services in the São Paulo Macrometropolis, the largest urban agglomeration in Latin America, in different land-cover scenarios using Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) software. Correlation analysis and map algebra were used to identify trade-offs and synergies, as well as hotspots and coldspots of multiple ecosystem services. The results showed decreasing trends in the supply capacity of erosion control, carbon storage, and seasonal water yield in the entire São Paulo Macrometropolis and most of its Regional Units, as well as evidence of a worsening of trade-offs between the ecosystem services evaluated. Furthermore, areas with a high supply of three or more ecosystem services were coincident with Conservation Areas, emphasizing the importance of these protected areas. By revealing important relationships among four ecosystem services, the outputs suggest regions and combinations of services for which spatial planning and appropriate conservation mechanisms can be used to optimize synergies and mitigate trade-offs. The results can help land use planning practitioners and decision-makers to design management strategies and policies for conservation and restoration based on linkages between specific units and associated ecosystem services and their trade-offs in this strategic region of Brazil.