Changes In Timing Of Migration Research Articles

Among-species variation in six decades of changing migration timings explained through ecology, life-history and local migratory abundance.

Species exploiting seasonal environments must alter timings of key life-history events in response to large-scale climatic changes in order to maintain trophic synchrony with required resources. Yet, substantial among-species variation in long-term phenological changes has been observed. Advancing from simply describing such variation towards predicting future phenological responses requires studies that rigorously quantify and explain variation in the direction and magnitude of changing timings across diverse species in relation to key ecological and life-history variables. Accordingly, we fitted multi-quantile regressions to 59 years of multi-species data on spring and autumn bird migration timings through northern Scotland. We demonstrate substantial variation in changes in timings among 72 species, and tested whether such variation can be explained by species ecology, life-history and changes in local abundance. Consistent with predictions, species that advanced their migration timing in one or both seasons had more seasonally restricted diet types, fewer suitable breeding habitat types, shorter generation lengths and capability to produce multiple offspring broods per year. In contrast, species with less seasonally restricted diet types and that produce single annual offspring broods, showed no change. Meanwhile, contrary to prediction, long-distance and short-distance migrants advanced migration timings similarly. Changes in migration timing also varied with changes in local migratory abundance, such that species with increasing seasonal abundance apparently altered their migration timing, whilst species with decreasing abundance did not. Such patterns broadly concur with expectation given adaptive changes in migration timing. However, we demonstrate that similar patterns can be generated by numerical sampling given changing local abundances. Any apparent phenology-abundance relationships should, therefore, be carefully validated and interpreted. Overall, our results show that migrant bird species with differing ecologies and life-histories showed systematically differing phenological changes over six decades contextualised by large-scale environmental changes, potentially facilitating future predictions and altering temporal dynamics of seasonal species co-occurrences.

Temperature and body size affect movement of juvenile Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and saithe (Pollachius virens) at nearshore nurseries.

Seasonal migrations of marine fish between shallow summer feeding habitats and deep overwintering grounds are driven by fluctuations in the biotic and abiotic environment as well as by changes in the internal state. Ontogenetic shifts in physiology and metabolism affect the response to environmental drivers and may lead to changes in migration timing and propensity. In this study, we investigated the effect of temperature and body size on migration timing and depth distribution in acoustically tagged Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, and saithe, Pollachius virens, during the period of seasonal migration from shallow summer habitats. The results from our study revealed a wide range of horizontal and vertical distribution of age 1 and 2 G. morhua within the fjord. Larger G. morhua inhabited deeper, cooler waters than smaller juveniles, likely reflecting size-dependent thermal preferences and predation pressure. Conversely, juvenile P. virens occupied primarily shallow waters close to land. The variation in depth distribution of G. morhua was mainly explained by body size and not, against our predictions, by water temperature. Conversely, the dispersal from the in-fjord habitats occurred when water temperatures were high, suggesting that seasonal temperature fluctuations can trigger the migration timing of P. virens and larger G. morhua from summer habitats. Partial migration of small juvenile G. morhua from in-fjord foraging grounds, likely influenced by individual body condition, suggested seasonal migration as a flexible strategy that individuals may use to reduce predation and energetic expenditure. Predation mortality rates of tagged juveniles were higher than previously suggested and are the first robust predation mortality rates for juvenile G. morhua and P. virens estimated based on acoustic transmitters with acidity sensors. The results have relevance for climate-informed marine spatial planning as under the scenario of increasing ocean temperatures, increasing summer temperatures may reduce the juveniles' resource utilization in the shallow summer nurseries, resulting in lower growth rates, increased predation pressure, and lower chances of juvenile winter survival.

Vocalizing humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrating from Antarctic feeding grounds arrive earlier and earlier in the Perth Canyon, Western Australia

Migratory species undertake seasonal, long-distance travel between feeding and breeding grounds, and time their arrivals with high-quality resources. The Breeding Stock D population of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrates from Antarctic to Western Australian waters every austral winter. Based on 16 years (2002-2017) of passive acoustic recordings in the Perth Canyon, Western Australia, the hourly presence/absence of humpback whale vocalizations was used as an indicator of inter-annual changes in migration timing. A trend of earlier arrivals in the Perth Canyon by 1.4 days/year during the northward migration and possibly earlier departures from the Perth Canyon during the southward migration was observed. A distance-based linear model and a generalized linear model (GLM) both identified sea surface temperature (SST) as the most significant predictor for acoustic presence in the Perth Canyon. A 1 °C increase in SST corresponded to a decrease in humpback whale acoustic presence by 4.4 hours/day. Mean SST at the peak of the humpback whale season in the Perth Canyon was 19 °C. Exploratory analysis of the metocean environment of the Antarctic feeding grounds suggested that whales were leaving the Antarctic at the end of the austral summer, as sea ice concentration (SIC) increased and SST decreased. Further research should investigate whether changes in the metocean conditions on Australian breeding grounds correspond to changing departures from the Perth Canyon during the southward migration. If environmental conditions on breeding and feeding grounds change out-of-sync, migrating whales might be unable to arrive at either ground during optimal conditions.

The importance of including phenology when modelling species ecological niche

Species distribution models have grown in complexity by incorporating fine‐scale variables, including data on microclimate, physiology and species interactions. Recent studies have acknowledged the importance of the spatial scale by including higher resolution maps and more complex climatic variables. However, models rarely consider the consequences of including data related to time. Indeed, species phenology – and potential shifts in phenology due, for example, to climate change – is potentially one of the most neglected aspects of ecological modelling. We present a literature review of relevant phenological aspects at different temporal scales and across several taxa. Such elements should be considered to define better the environmental niche and project present, future and past distribution models. We considered the available studies on plants, insects, reptiles, birds and mammals to evaluate how they dealt with the phenology of the investigated species, as well as the phenology of other resources and interacting species, to infer present, past and future projections. Here we focus on four main phenological aspects that, if not considered, may easily bias any projection, namely: 1) phenology can be accompanied by a shift in distribution within the year (e.g. migratory species); 2) activity may be restricted to a portion of the year (e.g. most ectotherms from temperate climates); 3) survival and reproduction success may depend on the synchrony with other species phenology (e.g. plants–pollinators interactions); 4) changes in climatic conditions can lead to shifts in phenology (e.g. anticipated or delayed blooms or changes in migration timing). In this review, we show how neglecting such factors may quickly lead to project a biased distribution. Finally, we provide a guide on evaluating whether the case study may be affected by such factors and what actions may improve the models.

The impact of climate change on birder destination loyalty: examining changes in bird resources

ABSTRACT Climate change has had a considerable impact on bird activities; however, it remains unclear how birders perceive the effects of climate change and whether their perceptions affect their loyalty to birding destinations. Based on the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions, this study constructs a destination loyalty model driven by the perception that bird resources have changed and place attachment of birders. We collected 252 valid questionnaires at five well-known birding destinations in China, including Baihualing in Yunnan, Nonggang in Guangxi, Chengdu in Sichuan, and Guangzhou and Shenzhen in Guangdong to test the proposed model. The study indicated four important findings. First, when climate change caused significant changes in bird migration time as perceived by birders, their loyalty to birding destinations was significantly reduced. Second, when mediated by place attachment, changes in bird migration time, population and distribution/habitat had negative impacts on loyalty to birding destinations. Third, the change in bird departure time had the greatest impact on birding destination loyalty. Finally, the change in bird distribution/habitat in a city had the greatest impact on place attachment than changes in migration time and population of birds. Specific theoretical and practical implications are provided.

Birds use individually consistent temperature cues to time their migration departure.

A fundamental issue in migration biology is how birds decide when to start their journey, given that arriving too early or too late in a variable environment reduces individual fitness. Internal circannual regulation and predictable cues such as photoperiod prepare birds for migration, while variable external cues such as temperature and wind are thought to fine-tune departure times; however, this has not been demonstrated at the key point at which an individual animal decides to start migrating. In theory, environmental cues correlated between departure and arrival sites allow informed departure decisions. For 48 satellite-tracked Asian houbara Chlamydotis macqueenii, a medium-distance migrant with climatic connectivity between wintering and breeding areas, each tracked across multiple years, spring departure was under individually consistent temperature conditions, with greater individual repeatability than for photoperiod or wind. Individuals occupied a range of wintering sites latitudinally spanning 1,200 km but departed at lower temperatures from more northerly latitudes. These individual departure decisions produced earlier mean population-level departure and arrival dates in warmer springs. Phenological adjustments were fully compensatory, because individuals arrived on the breeding grounds under similar temperature conditions each year. Individuals' autumn departure decisions were also repeatable for temperature but less distinct than for spring, likely because of relaxed time constraints on leaving breeding grounds and the use of wind as a supplementary departure cue. We show that individual-level departure decisions informed by local temperatures can preadapt a population to adjust its population-level phenology in response to annual variability in spring temperatures without requiring genetic change in reaction thresholds.

Development of an accurate model to predict the phenology of Atlantic salmon smolt spring migration

Abstract Changes in migration timing, resulting from the alteration in river continuity or the effect of climate change, can have major consequences on the population dynamics of diadromous fish. Forecasting the phenology of fish migration is thus critically important to implement management actions aimed at protecting fish during their migration. In this study, an 11‐year monitoring survey of Atlantic salmon smolts (Salmo salar) from the Ourthe River, Belgium, was analysed within a European Special Area of Conservation to improve the understanding of environment‐induced spring migration. A logistic model was fitted to forecast smolt migration and to calculate phenological indicators for management, i.e. the onset, end, and duration of migration, while accounting for the influence of photoperiod, water temperature, and hydrological conditions. The results indicated that the photo‐thermal units accumulated by smolts above a 7°C temperature threshold was a relevant proxy to reflect the synergistic effect between temperature and photoperiod on smolt migration. After integrating the effect of river flow pulses, the model accurately explained the inter‐annual changes in migration timing (R2 = 0.95). The model predictions provide decisive management information to identify sensitive periods during which mitigation measures (e.g. hydropower turbine shutdown, river discharge management) should be conducted to promote smolt survival. The model was used to predict phenological characteristics under future scenarios of climate change. The results suggest a joint effect of hydrological alterations and water warming. Temperature increases of 1–4°C were associated with earlier initiation of migration, 6–51 days earlier, and spring flood events greatly influenced the duration of the migration period. Accordingly, the combined effects of human‐induced modifications of the hydrological regimes and increasing temperatures could result in a mismatch between the smolt and favourable survival conditions in the marine environment.

The results of spring monitoring on the status of geese populations in 2011–2018 in the North Kazakhstan Region

Abstract The article presents the results of monitoring studies on the population dynamics of goose species at one of the largest stopover sites in Northern Kazakhstan during the springs of 2011–2018. Comparative analysis of the phenological phases at the beginning and end of migration over a 50-year period is conducted and changes in timing of migration for the studied groups are established. Data on the number of flocks at various stages of the migration process are presented. Authors revealed characteristics of the distribution of birds in the directions of migration through the region associated with the presence of various migration strategies. Based on the distribution and number of geese in the region for rest and feeding, key zones with characteristics of their natural and anthropogenic state were identified. It has been established that water bodies and large areas have optimal conditions for rest and replenishment of energy reserves for the birds.

Long-term changes in the autumn migration phenology of dabbling ducks in southern Ontario and implications for waterfowl management

Delays in waterfowl autumn migration have been widely reported by hunters and ornithologists throughout North America. The implications of such delays are vast, with potential effects on the efficacy of population management, reduced social and economic opportunities, and reduced resource availability by overuse and over-grazing in key staging areas. In this study, we tested for changes in autumn migration timing for six abundant species of dabbling ducks in southern Ontario, Canada. We applied generalized linear mixed models to test for effects of year and climate indices El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on the Julian date of peak abundance as observed during aerial surveys conducted throughout the lower Great Lakes. Our analyses revealed delays of 11–18 days between 1968 and 2011 for four of six focal species: mallard, American black duck, American wigeon and gadwall. La Nina and El Nino events had no effect on migration timing for American black duck, American green-winged teal or American wigeon, while an increase in the annual NAO index resulted in a delayed migration for American wigeon. There was an NAO:ENSO interaction for mallard and gadwall migration; an increase in NAO advanced peak migration dates during La Nina events. However, an increase in NAO delayed migration for gadwall during the neutral phase of the ENSO and delayed migration for both species during El Nino events. Blue-winged teal and American green-winged teal showed no change in migration timing. Given that climate forecasts indicate continued positive-value phases, the autumn migrations for mallard, American black duck, gadwall and American wigeon may become increasingly delayed. Wildlife managers should use all available data, including from standardized aerial surveys, citizen science and climate models to inform and direct adaptive population management, hunting regulations, wildlife emergency response and habitat conservation.

Plasticity in elk migration timing is a response to changing environmental conditions.

Migration is an effective behavioral strategy for prolonging access to seasonal resources and may be a resilient strategy for ungulates experiencing changing climatic conditions. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), elk are the primary ungulate, with approximately 20,000 individuals migrating to exploit seasonal gradients in forage while also avoiding energetically costly snow conditions. How climate-induced changes in plant phenology and snow accumulation are influencing elk migration timing is unknown. We present the most complete record of elk migration across the GYE, spanning 9 herds and 414 individuals from 2001 to 2017, to evaluate the drivers of migration timing and test for temporal shifts. The timing of elk departure from winter range involved a trade-off between current and anticipated forage conditions, while snow melt governed summer range arrival date. Timing of elk departure from summer range and arrival on winter range were both influenced by snow accumulation and exposure to hunting. At the GYE scale, spring and fall migration timing changed through time, most notably with winter range arrival dates becoming almost 50days later since 2001. Predicted herd-level changes in migration timing largely agreed with observed GYE-wide changes-except for predicted winter range arrival dates which did not reflect the magnitude of change detected in the elk telemetry data. Snow melt, snow accumulation, and spring green-up dates all changed through time, with different herds experiencing different rates and directions of change. We conclude that elk migration is plastic, is a direct response to environmental cues, and that these environmental cues are not changing in a consistent manner across the GYE. The impacts of changing elk migration timing on predator-prey dynamics, carnivore-livestock conflict, disease ecology, and harvest management across the GYE are likely to be significant and complex.

Holding steady: Little change in intensity or timing of bird migration over the Gulf of Mexico.

Quantifying the timing and intensity of migratory movements is imperative for understanding impacts of changing landscapes and climates on migratory bird populations. Billions of birds migrate in the Western Hemisphere, but accurately estimating the population size of one migratory species, let alone hundreds, presents numerous obstacles. Here, we quantify the timing, intensity, and distribution of bird migration through one of the largest migration corridors in the Western Hemisphere, the Gulf of Mexico (the Gulf). We further assess whether there have been changes in migration timing or intensity through the Gulf. To achieve this, we integrate citizen science (eBird) observations with 21years of weather surveillance radar data (1995-2015). We predicted no change in migration timing and a decline in migration intensity across the time series. We estimate that an average of 2.1billion birds pass through this region each spring en route to Nearctic breeding grounds. Annually, half of these individuals pass through the region in just 18days, between April 19 and May 7. The western region of the Gulf showed a mean rate of passage 5.4 times higher than the central and eastern regions. We did not detect an overall change in the annual numbers of migrants (2007-2015) or the annual timing of peak migration (1995-2015). However, we found that the earliest seasonal movements through the region occurred significantly earlier over time (1.6days decade-1 ). Additionally, body mass and migration distance explained the magnitude of phenological changes, with the most rapid advances occurring with an assemblage of larger-bodied shorter-distance migrants. Our results provide baseline information that can be used to advance our understanding of the developing implications of climate change, urbanization, and energy development for migratory bird populations in North America.

Egg incubation temperature affects the timing of the Atlantic salmon Salmo salar homing migration.

Here, we show that adult Atlantic salmon Salmo salar returned about 2 weeks later from the feeding areas in the North Atlantic Ocean to the Norwegian coast, through a phenotypically plastic mechanism, when they developed as embryos in c. 3°C warmer water than the regular incubation temperature. This finding has relevance to changes in migration timing caused by climate change and for cultivation and release of S. salar.

Long-term changes in migration timing of Song Thrush Turdus philomelos at the southern Baltic coast in response to temperatures on route and at breeding grounds.

Climate warming causes the advancement of spring arrival of many migrant birds breeding in Europe, but the effects on their autumn migration are less known. We aimed to determine any changes in the timing of Song Thrush captured during spring and autumn migrations at the Polish Baltic coast from 1975 to 2014, and if these were related to long-term changes of temperature at their breeding grounds and migration routes. The timing of spring migration at Hel ringing station in 1975-2014 did not show long-term advance, but they had responded to environmental conditions on the year-to-year basis. The warmer the temperatures were in April on their migration route, the earlier were the dates of the median and the end of spring migration at Hel. The beginning of autumn migration at the Mierzeja Wiślana ringing station advanced by 5days between 1975 and 2014. The warmer the April on route, and the July at the Song Thrushes' breeding grounds, the earlier young birds began autumn migration across the Baltic coast. We suggest this was a combined effect of adults' migration and breeding early during warm springs and young birds getting ready faster for autumn migration during warm summers. The average time span of 90% of the autumn migration was extended by 5days, probably because of early migration of young birds from first broods and late of those from second broods enabled by warm springs and summers. The response of Song Thrushes' migration timing to temperatures on route and at the breeding grounds indicated high plasticity in the species and suggested it might adapt well to climate changes.

Evolution of phenology in a salmonid population: a potential adaptive response to climate change

Accumulating evidence has indicated that many fish populations are responding to climate change through shifts in migration time, but genetic data identifying the role of evolution in these shifts are rare. One of the first demonstrations of evolution of migration time was produced by monitoring allozyme alleles that were experimentally manipulated to genetically mark late-migrating pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). Here, we extend that research by using observations of the marker alleles in fry to demonstrate that these changes in migration time were caused by directional selection against the late-migrating phenotype during the oceanic phase of the salmonid life cycle. The selective event, which appeared to be driven by early vernal warming of the nearshore marine environment and consequent decreased survival of late-migrating fry relative to early-migrating fry, decreased the late-migrating phenotype from more than 50% to approximately 10% of the total fry abundance in only one generation. These demographic changes have persisted over the subsequent 13 generations and suggest that a larger trend toward earlier migration time in this population may reflect adaptation to warming sea-surface temperatures.

Temporal patterns in adult salmon migration timing across southeast Alaska

Pacific salmon migration timing can drive population productivity, ecosystem dynamics, and human harvest. Nevertheless, little is known about long-term variation in salmon migration timing for multiple species across broad regions. We used long-term data for five Pacific salmon species throughout rapidly warming southeast Alaska to describe long-term changes in salmon migration timing, interannual phenological synchrony, relationships between climatic variation and migratory timing, and to test whether long-term changes in migration timing are related to glaciation in headwater streams. Temporal changes in the median date of salmon migration timing varied widely across species. Most sockeye populations are migrating later over time (11 of 14), but pink, chum, and especially coho populations are migrating earlier than they did historically (16 of 19 combined). Temporal trends in duration and interannual variation in migration timing were highly variable across species and populations. The greatest temporal shifts in the median date of migration timing were correlated with decreases in the duration of migration timing, suggestive of a loss of phenotypic variation due to natural selection. Pairwise interannual correlations in migration timing varied widely but were generally positive, providing evidence for weak region-wide phenological synchrony. This synchrony is likely a function of climatic variation, as interannual variation in migration timing was related to climatic phenomenon operating at large- (Pacific decadal oscillation), moderate- (sea surface temperature), and local-scales (precipitation). Surprisingly, the presence or the absence of glaciers within a watershed was unrelated to long-term shifts in phenology. Overall, there was extensive heterogeneity in long-term patterns of migration timing throughout this climatically and geographically complex region, highlighting that future climatic change will likely have widely divergent impacts on salmon migration timing. Although salmon phenological diversity will complicate future predictions of migration timing, this variation likely acts as a major contributor to population and ecosystem resiliency in southeast Alaska.

Modelling the progression of bird migration with conditional autoregressive models applied to ringing data.

Migration is a fundamental stage in the life history of several taxa, including birds, and is under strong selective pressure. At present, the only data that may allow for both an assessment of patterns of bird migration and for retrospective analyses of changes in migration timing are the databases of ring recoveries. We used ring recoveries of the Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica collected from 1908–2008 in Europe to model the calendar date at which a given proportion of birds is expected to have reached a given geographical area (‘progression of migration’) and to investigate the change in timing of migration over the same areas between three time periods (1908–1969, 1970–1990, 1991–2008). The analyses were conducted using binomial conditional autoregressive (CAR) mixed models. We first concentrated on data from the British Isles and then expanded the models to western Europe and north Africa. We produced maps of the progression of migration that disclosed local patterns of migration consistent with those obtained from the analyses of the movements of ringed individuals. Timing of migration estimated from our model is consistent with data on migration phenology of the Barn Swallow available in the literature, but in some cases it is later than that estimated by data collected at ringing stations, which, however, may not be representative of migration phenology over large geographical areas. The comparison of median migration date estimated over the same geographical area among time periods showed no significant advancement of spring migration over the whole of Europe, but a significant advancement of autumn migration in southern Europe. Our modelling approach can be generalized to any records of ringing date and locality of individuals including those which have not been recovered subsequently, as well as to geo-referenced databases of sightings of migratory individuals.

Timing of songbird migration: individual consistency within and between seasons

The timing of migration is generally considered of utmost importance for reproduction and survival, and timing is furthermore considered to be under strong genetic control. The individual timing of migration is presumably a result of a combination of genetic, phenotypic and environmental factors as well as some degree of randomness. However, potential differences in consistency of timing between spring and autumn and between migration strategies are not well studied. Using long‐term Danish ringing data, we study such differences by correlating date of ringing with date of recaptures for a suite of common migrating passerines in Denmark. We found that individuals marked early in one year tended to be recaptured early in the same season in a following year indicating that individuals time their migration in spring or autumn similarly between years. The relationship between spring and autumn migration was overall slightly negative, suggesting that birds arriving early in spring tended to depart late in autumn and vice versa. There were only weak effects of geographical location on timing, suggesting that the patterns found are not primarily caused by different populations being involved. Knowledge of individual consistency in migration timing is needed for understanding changes in migration timing. The consistent patterns of repeatabilities within and between seasons found here highlight the importance of timing of migration in songbirds.

Temporal patterns of genetic variation in a salmon population undergoing rapid change in migration timing.

Though genetic diversity is necessary for population persistence in rapidly changing environments, little is known about how climate‐warming influences patterns of intra‐population genetic variation. For a pink salmon population experiencing increasing temperatures, we used temporal genetic data (microsatellite = 1993, 2001, 2009; allozyme = 1979, 1981, 1983) to quantify the genetic effective population size (N e) and genetic divergence due to differences in migration timing and to estimate whether these quantities have changed over time. We predicted that temporal trends toward earlier migration timing and a corresponding loss of phenotypic variation would decrease genetic divergence based on migration timing and N e. We observed significant genetic divergence based on migration timing and genetic heterogeneity between early‐ and late‐migrating fish. There was also some evidence for divergent selection between early‐ and late‐migrating fish at circadian rhythm genes, but results varied over time. Estimates of N e from multiple methods were large (>1200) and N e/N c generally exceeded 0.2. Despite shifts in migration timing and loss of phenotypic variation, there was no evidence for changes in within‐population genetic divergence or N e over the course of this study. These results suggest that in instances of population stability, genetic diversity may be resistant to climate‐induced changes in migration timing.

Time to Evolve? Potential Evolutionary Responses of Fraser River Sockeye Salmon to Climate Change and Effects on Persistence

Evolutionary adaptation affects demographic resilience to climate change but few studies have attempted to project changes in selective pressures or quantify impacts of trait responses on population dynamics and extinction risk. We used a novel individual-based model to explore potential evolutionary changes in migration timing and the consequences for population persistence in sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka in the Fraser River, Canada, under scenarios of future climate warming. Adult sockeye salmon are highly sensitive to increases in water temperature during their arduous upriver migration, raising concerns about the fate of these ecologically, culturally, and commercially important fish in a warmer future. Our results suggest that evolution of upriver migration timing could allow these salmon to avoid increasingly frequent stressful temperatures, with the odds of population persistence increasing in proportion to the trait heritability and phenotypic variance. With a simulated 2°C increase in average summer river temperatures by 2100, adult migration timing from the ocean to the river advanced by ∼10 days when the heritability was 0.5, while the risk of quasi-extinction was only 17% of that faced by populations with zero evolutionary potential (i.e., heritability fixed at zero). The rates of evolution required to maintain persistence under simulated scenarios of moderate to rapid warming are plausible based on estimated heritabilities and rates of microevolution of timing traits in salmon and related species, although further empirical work is required to assess potential genetic and ecophysiological constraints on phenological adaptation. These results highlight the benefits to salmon management of maintaining evolutionary potential within populations, in addition to conserving key habitats and minimizing additional stressors where possible, as a means to build resilience to ongoing climate change. More generally, they demonstrate the importance and feasibility of considering evolutionary processes, in addition to ecology and demography, when projecting population responses to environmental change.

Predation Danger Can Explain Changes in Timing of Migration: The Case of the Barnacle Goose

Understanding stopover decisions of long-distance migratory birds is crucial for conservation and management of these species along their migratory flyway. Recently, an increasing number of Barnacle geese breeding in the Russian Arctic have delayed their departure from their wintering site in the Netherlands by approximately one month and have reduced their staging duration at stopover sites in the Baltic accordingly. Consequently, this extended stay increases agricultural damage in the Netherlands. Using a dynamic state variable approach we explored three hypotheses about the underlying causes of these changes in migratory behavior, possibly related to changes in (i) onset of spring, (ii) potential intake rates and (iii) predation danger at wintering and stopover sites. Our simulations showed that the observed advance in onset of spring contradicts the observed delay of departure, whereas both increased predation danger and decreased intake rates in the Baltic can explain the delay. Decreased intake rates are expected as a result of increased competition for food in the growing Barnacle goose population. However, the effect of predation danger in the model was particularly strong, and we hypothesize that Barnacle geese avoid Baltic stopover sites as a response to the rapidly increasing number of avian predators in the area. Therefore, danger should be considered as an important factor influencing Barnacle goose migratory behavior, and receive more attention in empirical studies.