Champagne Wine Research Articles

Influence of Botrytis cinerea infection on Champagne wine proteins (characterized by two-dimensional electrophoresis/immunodetection) and wine foaming properties

Proteins are implicated in the foam stabilization of Champagne wines. They may have a grape, yeast, bacteria or fungal origin. Botrytis cinerea is a widespread fungal pathogen, which is the causal agent for gray mold. The first part of this work showed the deleterious effect of the presence of this fungus on the foaming properties of a champenois base wine. Foamability and foam stability were reduced, respectively, by 47.7% and 33.3% in the botrytized wine, as compared to the healthy wine. In a second part, SDS–PAGE and two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE), coupled with immunodetection, were used to study (thoroughly) the protein patterns of both wines. With 2-DE and silver-staining detection, the disappearance of numerous spots, located in an acidic pH range, was observed. Indeed, the number of spots detected was about two times more abundant in the healthy wine than in the botrytized one, suggesting that a proteolysis occurred. On the other hand, the presence of new proteins, likely fungal proteins, proteins secreted by the plant as a response to B. cinerea infection, or even protein fragments resulting from partial proteolysis, was detected in the botrytized wine. All these modifications of the wine protein content were undoubtedly due to the presence of B. cinerea and this might be a reason for the loss of foaming properties of Champagne base wines, though no relationship between these two phenomena can be established from the results obtained.

Determination of the <em>Trans</em>-resveratrol content of Champagne wines by reversed-phase HPLC

<p style="text-align: justify;">Levels of trans-resveratrol in Champagne wines were determined by the use of reversed-phase HPLC with UV and fluorometric detection after liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate. Resveratrol concentrations in Champagne wines range from 20 to 77 μg/L except for the Champagne rosé in which resveratrol reaches several hundred micrograms per litre. The resveratrol content of Champagne wines was also shown to decrease with aging on lees.</p>

Economic assessment of the Champagne wine qualitative stock mecanism

In the wine AOC system, the regulation of quantities performed by the professional organizations is aimed to smooth the variations of the quality of the wine due to the variations in the climate that affect the quality of the grapes. Nevertheless, this regulation could be damaging to the consumers due to the price increase resulting from the reduction of the quantities sold on the market. We propose a stochastic control model and a simulation tool able to measure the effects of this mechanism on the producer's profit and the consumer's surplus.

Determination of the Grape Invertase Content (Using PTA−ELISA) following Various Fining Treatments versus Changes in the Total Protein Content of Wine. Relationships with Wine Foamability

Proteins have proven to play a major role in the stabilization of foam in Champagne wines despite their low concentration that ranges from 4 to 20 mg/L. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of fining on total protein and grape invertase contents of champenois base wines and their foaming properties. Data showed that fining and especially the use of bentonite at doses ranging from 10 to 50 g/hL leads to a significant decrease in the total protein content of wines together with that of the grape invertase content, with such a decrease being very detrimental to the foaming properties of the treated wines in terms of foam height (HM) and foam stability (HS). Only a slight decrease in the total protein content, in the grape invertase concentration, and in the foam quality of wines was observed when using casein (10 and 20 g/hL) or bentonite combined with casein (both at 20 g/hL). Our study thus clearly establishes the good correlation existing between the wine protein concentration and its foaming properties. A remarkable correlation was observed between the decrease in the grape invertase content and the total protein content of wines, following bentonite treatments, suggesting that the grape invertase (which represents at least 10-20% of the wine proteins) follows a similar behavior upon fining to other proteins of Champagne wines, despite the high molecular mass and the highly glycosylated structure of this particular protein. Moreover, the decrease in total protein and grape invertase contents of wine after fining with bentonite was found to be correlated with a decrease in the foaming properties of the corresponding wines (with respectively R(2) = 0.89 and 0.95).

Release of Nucleotides and Nucleosides during Yeast Autolysis: Kinetics and Potential Impact on Flavor

Nucleotides, particularly 5'-nucleotides, are important flavoring agents found in many foods and beverages. Their precise effect on the flavor of wines aged on lees has not been examined previously. In this study nucleotides and nucleosides released by yeast during autolysis in a model wine system and in Champagne wines were identified and quantified, and their impact on wine flavor was determined. Ribonucleotides only were detected in yeast autolysate and in Champagne wines. In wines ribonucleotides were quantified by tandem mass spectrometry coupled to HPLC. The maximum concentration of total nucleotides was very low with a maximum of approximately 3 mg/L in wine aged on yeasts for 9 years. In young wines the most important nucleotide was 5'-UMP, but after 2 years of aging its concentration decreased and the concentration of 5'-GMP slowly increased. The threshold values of the most representative nucleotides in Champagne wines were higher than the concentrations found in the same wines. However, it is known that there is synergism between the different nucleotides and also in the presence of glutamic acid. This phenomenon could explain the difference observed in descriptive profiles of wines spiked with nucleotides.

Characterization of low-molecular weight peptides in champagne wine by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

This paper reports the use of an on-line LC–ESI–MS/MS method for the identification and quantification of di- and tripeptides in champagne wine without laborious sample pretreatment. The identification of these compounds, in their underivatised form, is based on identical retention times and ESI–MS spectra to those of reference standards. The presence of nine dipeptides (Arg–Ile, Ile–Arg, Ile–Val, Lys–Phe, Lys–Tyr, Phe–Lys, Tyr–Gln, Tyr–Lys, Val–Ile) and the absence of two tripeptides (Phe–Arg–Arg and Lys–Met–Asn) have been evidenced in the matrix. Calibration curves for each analyte were established using Phe–Arg as internal standard. The calibration curves were linear in the concentration range 0.1–10 mg L −1 with a determination coefficient, r 2, better than 0.992. The accuracy for the calibration standard was estimated at between 92 and 102%. This method allows high recovery and satisfies the necessary requirements with respect to accuracy, repeatability and sensitivity. The first application of this analytical method to the measurement of di- and tri-peptides in different vintages of champagne wine is reported. Compositional changes in the peptides occurred depending on the vintage.

Is the Wall of a Cellulose Fiber Saturated with Liquid Whether or Not Permeable with CO2Dissolved Molecules? Application to Bubble Nucleation in Champagne Wines

In this paper, the transversal diffusion coefficient D perpendicular of CO2 dissolved molecules through the wall of a hydrated cellulose fiber was approached, from the liquid bulk diffusion coefficient of CO2 dissolved molecules modified by an obstruction factor. The porous network between the cellulose microfibrils of the fiber wall was assumed being saturated with liquid. We retrieved information from previous NMR experiments on the self-diffusion of water in cellulose fibers to reach an order of magnitude for the transversal diffusion coefficient of CO2 molecules through the fiber wall. A value of about D perpendicular approximately 0.2D0 was proposed, D0 being the diffusion coefficient of CO2 molecules in the liquid bulk. Because most of bubble nucleation sites in a glass poured with carbonated beverage are cellulose fibers cast off from paper or cloth which floated from the surrounding air, or remaining from the wiping process, this result directly applies to the kinetics of carbon dioxide bubble formation from champagne and sparkling wines. If the cellulose fiber wall was impermeable with regard to CO2 dissolved molecules, it was suggested that the kinetics of bubbling would be about three times less than it is.

Mechanism of migration from agglomerated cork stoppers. Part 2: Safety assessment criteria of agglomerated cork stoppers for champagne wine cork producers, for users and for control laboratories

Producers of cork for champagne and wine have to be certain the corks meet the requirements of the European Union Framework Directive, and comply with the evaluations of chemicals carried out in the European Union. To identify chemicals in cork with the potential to migrate, the different synthetic products on the market were classified based on their technical role and of the chemistry involved. The potential migrants in each class (adhesive for cork bodies, adhesive for cork disks, lubricants and surface treatments) were analysed spectroscopically and chromatographically. A general approach was proposed for the evaluation of each commercial chemical: the detailed composition was supplied and verified mainly by infrared spectroscopy, proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR) and GC-MS. A procedure to determine primary aromatic amines, specifically for cork migrates, based on GC-MS was developed. These techniques focussed on migrants below 1000 g mol−1, as higher molecular weight chemicals are not likely to pose a problem for public health. The products were also tested after polymerization. The analytical scheme included an analytical check of synthetic product formulation and identification of potential migrants, solvent extraction and analysis of cork extracts.

Role of certain volatile thiols in the bouquet of aged champagne wines.

A method for the specific extraction of volatile thiols by use of p-hydroxymercuribenzoate has made it possible to identify certain flavor-active volatile thiols in Champagne wines. Benzenemethanethiol, 2-furanmethanethiol, and ethyl 3-mercaptopropionate were present in these wines at concentrations considerably higher than their perception thresholds. Their concentrations increased gradually in proportion to the bottle aging period and sharply as a result of disgorging. The contribution of these volatile thiols to the empyreumatic nuances of the bouquet of aged Champagne wines was demonstrated for the first time.

Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics of Immobilized Champagne Yeasts and Their Participation in Champagnizing Processes: A Review

Methods for immobilizing champagne yeasts, physiological and biochemical characteristics of the immobilized cells, and problems of their utilization in the production of quality champagne wines are reviewed. Studies aimed at the development of efficient biocatalysts for champagnizing wines using bottle fermentation (methode champenoise) and tank processing (bulk, or Charmat process) based on the use of immobilized yeast cells are described. Data on the industrial use of such biocatalysts in countries manufacturing champagne wines are presented. Problems and prospects of further research in this field are discussed.

Changes in Chitinase and Thaumatin-like Pathogenesis-Related Proteins of Grape Berries during the Champagne Winemaking Process

Plant defense proteins (pathogenesis-related, or PR, proteins) have been implicated in allergenic reactions in humans. Grape PR-proteins are also known to be responsible for heat-induced haze and are susceptible to precipitation in the bottle. Changes in two defense proteins, a chitinase (CHV5) and a thaumatinlike (TL), were followed during the Champagne winemaking process, using <i>Vitis vinifera</i> L. cv. Pinot noir grape berries. Determination of chitinase activity indicated that the extraction yield of chitinases is at least 22% in the must with low pressing to make Champagne and that chitinase activity regularly diminishes during the winemaking process. SDS-PAGE electrophoresis of the must revealed that CHV5 and TL are the major proteins found in grape berries cv. Pinot noir. Using specific antibodies, changes in these two proteins during the Champagne winemaking process were followed. Western blotting indicated a regular disappearance of CHV5 and TL. TL did not seem to precipitate or hydrolyze but was absent in Champagne wine. CHV5 was likely fixed on the cell wall of <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> yeast (yeast lees) after alcoholic fermentation and on the cell wall of <i>Oenococcus oeni</i> bacteria after malolactic fermentation. Fragments of low molecular weight linked to CHV5 were observed, probably indicating that CHV5 had undergone proteolysis. This observation is in good agreement with the occurrence of an acid protease activity during the Champagne winemaking process.

Un processus évolutionnaire de création institutionnelle d'une convention de qualité : l'histoire exemplaire de la création d'un produit de luxe, le champagne

The history of champagne is a very strange one because, initially, champagne wine was not a good wine but only a standard one. By the means of a spectacular historical process of creativity, champagne industry succeeded in transforming champagne wine in a luxury good and in segmenting the old market in two strongly separated compartments. As pointed by the "economics of conventions", creating a market needs a conventional agreement on the characteristics of this product, i.e. a quality convention. In the exemplary case of champagne, the creation of a luxury wine market, through the creation of a quality convention, emerges from a specific institutional process, the invention of a new legal system, the geographic label of origin.

Yeast adapted to wine: Nitrogen compounds released during induced autolysis in a model wine

As important as the blend of base wines before bottling, one of the most important steps in the champagne-making process is the long ageing on lees. Two yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae MC001 and MC002, used in champagne wine production, were allowed to autolyse. After 8 days of autolysis, active dry yeasts adapted to wine released 1.7- to 1.8-fold more nitrogen compounds than nonadapted active dry yeast. The nitrogen content (total, proteins, peptides and amino) present in autolysates was measured for yeasts adapted to wine. The composition of free amino acids and amino acids constituting peptides showed no difference between the two strains of yeast used. Studies of intracellular proteolytic activity and release of peptides showed no correlation between these two phenomena. These results indicate that yeasts adapted to wine give results similar to those that occur in wine during ageing. Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology (2002) 29, 134–139 doi: 10.1038/sj.jim.7000291

Yeast adapted to wine: nitrogen compounds released during induced autolysis in a model wine.

As important as the blend of base wines before bottling, one of the most important steps in the champagne-making process is the long ageing on lees. Two yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae MC001 and MC002, used in champagne wine production, were allowed to autolyse. After 8 days of autolysis, active dry yeasts adapted to wine released 1.7- to 1.8-fold more nitrogen compounds than nonadapted active dry yeast. The nitrogen content (total, proteins, peptides and amino) present in autolysates was measured for yeasts adapted to wine. The composition of free amino acids and amino acids constituting peptides showed no difference between the two strains of yeast used. Studies of intracellular proteolytic activity and release of peptides showed no correlation between these two phenomena. These results indicate that yeasts adapted to wine give results similar to those that occur in wine during ageing.

Dynamics of nonstationary sorption from food liquids in a reactor–mass exchanger unit

A new pulsed membrane method and a reactor–mass exchanger unit for sorption in a fine-particle sorbent–liquid system are proposed. A mathematical model and a design method are developed for units with a perfectly mixed or plug-flow reactor. The parameters of the sorption process in the unit are determined. The results obtained are collated with the results of simulation of static and dynamic sorption processes for the following systems: carboraffin-dry wine material-dyes, zirconium phosphate–champagne wine material-Ca 2+, zirconium phosphate–white dry wine material-Ca 2+, zirconium phosphate–port-Ca 2+, biosorbent OK-1-wine material-Fe 3+, biosorbent OK-L1-wine material-Fe 3+, yeast sorbent-wine material-phosalone.

Sweet/sour balance in champagne wine and dependence on taste/odour interactions

Effects of sucrose and tartaric acid on the sweetness, sourness and total taste intensity of champagne wine were studied through a full factorial design including 15 samples, varying in sucrose (0g/l–20.5g/l) and tartaric acid (2.50g/l–4.22g/l). Two experiments, involving 10 selected and trained subjects, were performed. Samples and procedures were the same, except that subjects had their nostrils closed with nose-clips in experiment 2. The suppressive effect of sucrose on the sourness of tartaric acid was stronger in experiment 2. The suppressive effect of tartaric acid on the sweetness of sucrose was very low in both experiments. Applying the vector addition model on total taste intensity scores indicated that sucrose and tartaric acid partially suppressed each other in both experiments. Sweetness contributed to a greater extent in the judgement of total taste intensity, particularaly in the nose-clip condition.

Sweetness, Sourness, and Total Taste Intensity in Champagne Wine

Fifteen wines, varying in sucrose (0 g/L, 5 g/L, 8 g/L, 12.8 g/L, and 20.5 g/L) and tartaric acid (2.50 g/L, 3.25 g/L, and 4.22 g/L) were prepared according to a full factorial design from an unsweetened base Champagne wine. Ten selected and trained subjects rated sweetness, sourness, and total taste intensity of the entire set of wines in triplicate. The suppressive effect of sucrose on the sourness of tartaric acid was stronger than the suppressive effect of tartaric acid on the sweetness of sucrose. Total taste intensity scores indicated that sucrose and tartaric acid exhibited poor additivity and partially suppressed each other. An integration of sweetness and sourness in the global intensity percept was observed. Sweetness contributed to a greater extent in the judgment of total taste intensity in Champagne wine.

Effects of Botrytis cinerea infection on Champagne wine foaming properties

AbstractQualitative effects of Botrytis cinerea infection were studied by comparing the foaming properties of Champagnes obtained from healthy grapes with those from grapes infected by B cinerea. This is of particular interest when it is considered that the foaming properties of Champagne wines are important in terms of product attractiveness for the consumer. Experiments using artificial viewing equipment clearly showed the dramatic effects on Champagne foam characteristics when grape berries were highly infected. The speed at which liquid separated from the foam (expressed as liquid height LS) in the glass depended largely on the level of infection for Chardonnary and Pinot noir wines (+268% for Chardonnary wines at 40% infection and +627% for Pinot noir wines at 20% infection). B cinerea infection reduced the time (LT) at which liquid first appeared in the glass; for Pinot noir wines an infection level of 20% caused very rapid drainage. The time of pouring (PT, ie the time to fill the glass under controlled conditions) also diminished considerably at an infection level of 20% for both Pinot noir and Pinot meunier wines (−74 and −58% respectively). Mouldiness considerably altered the foam height observed 80 s (H80) after the start of pouring (−83% for Pinot noir and −89% for Pinot meunier at 20% infection). Champagne foamability was also quantified using a sparging technique to standardise effervescence. Foamability suffered considerably (−60 to −65%) when the B cinerea infection level was 20% as compared to control Champagnes. All wines studied had low and very similar protein contents. Differences in the concentrations of these compounds, which are generally implicated in the formation of foam in sparkling wines, could not explain the differences in Champagne foaming properties observed here.© 2001 Society of Chemical Industry

Purification method for the isolation of monophosphate nucleotides from Champagne wine and their identification by mass spectrometry

Monophosphate nucleotides are difficult to identify in Champagne wine because they are present in small concentrations in a complex mixture. A method for the isolation, separation and identification of reference compounds, which achieved on average 79% recovery (except for cytidine derivatives), was developed and applied to wine. Some monophosphate nucleotides were then isolated from a Champagne wine aged on lees for 8 years, by ultrafiltration followed by a semi-preparative HPLC step using a strong anion-exchange column. The fraction obtained was subjected to HPLC in a reversed-phase column to remove the salt previously introduced, before identification of compounds by HPLC coupled to a mass spectrometer. For the first time in wine, 5′-IMP, 5′-AMP, 5′-CMP, 5′-GMP, 5′-UMP and the 3′- and/or 2′-isomers of the four latter compounds were identified by comparing their HPLC and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry data with those of reference nucleotides.

Effect of Bottle Capacity and Bottle-cap Permeability to Oxygen on Dimethylsulfide Formation in Champagne Wines during Aging on the Lees

During aging on the lees, dimethylsulfide accumulates more rapidly when low oxygen permeability bottle caps are used. Dimethylsulfide formation is also influenced by bottle capacity, and it could result from an increase in the reduction of wine dimethyl sulfoxide.