Chalcolithic Cultures Research Articles

Anthropological materials of the Bronze Age from the Ishkininsky burial mounds of Orenburg Region

The Ishkinin mounds are located on the territory of ancient copper mines that could have been created by the miners themselves. The materials from the burials of these burial grounds in total include six skeletons belonging to the Yamnaya and Alakul archaeological cultures of the Bronze Age. The people of the early stage of this epoch, judging by its morphological features, represent a rather tall Europeoid population. The restored male skull (Ishkinovka I, 3/7) is specific, differs from typical pit craniums of the Volga-Ural region in ultradolichocrania, and a very high face. According to male heredity, this individual has the same haplogroup that was characteristic of many Volga-Ural Ural Yamnaya people (R-Z2106), and according to female (mtDNA: H13a1a1), he finds a complete analogy with the sample of the Khvalyn Chalcolithic culture (Khlopkov Hillock, item 8), the owner of which craniologically represents a typical Uraloid complex. Probably, the physical characteristics of this person, and the appearance in general, are a reflection of the mestization of his progenitors. The Alakul skeletons of the Ishkinovka I and III burial grounds are more graceful. Taking into account previously published information, the bearers of the Alakul culture of the Late Bronze Age had a genesis unrelated to the ancient Yamal population. This, as well as archaeological data, shows that the ancient mines were developed for quite a long time, and by carriers of different archaeological cultures. The presence of cases of injury and natural pathologies on the skeletons of both cultures may indicate the presence of stress factors that caused their occurrence.

LATE CHALCOLITHIC FLINT ASSEMBLAGE FROM THE PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT OF TELISH-LAGA

The paper presents result of a techno-typological analysis of the flint implements from the archaeological investigation at the settlement Telish-Laga. The flint assemblage comes from the context of two geological horizons, which refer to the Late Chalcolithic culture of Krivodol Salkutsa-Bubani. The collection consists of 1398 artefacts. Typologically, it is divided as follows: specimens with traces of preparing the cores, cores, debitage products, and retouched forms. A detailed analysis of the flint assemblage suggests the following conclusions: − relatively small number of cores, − the debitage products were mainly obtained from unidirectional cores, − the blades significantly prevail among the debitage products, − relatively large number of retouched tools, as more than half of the tools are on blades, − the end scrapers prevail in the composition of the assemblage, − lack of typological variety in retouched tools. The quantitative dominance of end scrapers in the assemblage and macroscopically visible traces of wear on some of them indicate manufacturing directly oriented on the processing of animal products, such as skin, meat, bone or horn. In general, the structure of the assemblage indicates that the preparation of the core was mainly carried out off-site. Other kinds of activities were performed on-site, including manufacturing flakes/blades from cores, retouches, repairs, and so on. The settlement in Telish-Laga occupied a stratigraphic hiatus between the horizons II and III of the prehistoric settlement of Telish-Redutite. Both settlements refer to the so-called “altitude settlements”, characteristic of the area of the Krivodol-Salkutsa-Bubani ethno-cultural complex. However, it is possible to accept a different hypothesis – the settlement from the locality of “Laga” may have continued Horizon II of Redutite. In the technological and typological aspect, the assemblage of Telish-Laga finds analogies in certain Neolithic collections, such as Gradeshnitsa-Malo Pole, Gradeshnitsa-Lukanovo Darvo, or Zaminets. It also shares similarities with the late Neolithic-Early Chalcolithic assemblages of Altimir-Bresta and Gradeshnitsa-Gradishteto.

Fish Symbolism in Indus Valley Epigraphy and Protohistoric Accounts

The contribution of the Indus Valley civilization to the historic cultures of South Asia is a matter of debate due to a discontinuity in material culture, from the time of its decline to the reappearance of urbanization several centuries later. Progress in the epigraphy of the Indus Valley has been hindered by the absence of a bilingual inscription and the brevity of its texts. One of the most frequent signs encountered in its undeciphered writing system is the pictogram of ‘fish’. On a few seal inscriptions, this sign appears alone, suggesting that it represented a meaningful word or a name. It is noteworthy that Indian literature of later centuries recounts a protohistoric kingdom named Matsya in the vicinity of the Indus Valley sites, as matsya is the Sanskrit word for ‘fish’ and a divinity in the form of a fish is celebrated in the Indian version of the flood myth. An analysis of these narratives is presented in this paper, revealing the possibility of an association with the Indus Valley civilization of the more distant past. These observations indicate that fish symbolism may have occupied a place of prominence in Indus culture from political and religious perspectives. The Matsya territory mentioned in Vedic and epic literature is discussed in light of the chalcolithic cultures of Rajasthan, and it is suggested that this region witnessed successive waves of migration of different cultural groups due to its economic importance related to the exploitation of copper reserves.

Stone Decorations from the Chalcolithic Sites of the Upper and Middle Kama Region (an attempt at complex analysis)

The purpose of the article was a comprehensive study of stone decorations from the Chalcolithic sites of the region. The authors used petrographic description, typological and use-wear analysis. The authors examined 40 items from 6 archaeological sites located in the Upper (2) and Middle (4) Kama region. The jewelry was made of serpentinite of varying degrees of hardness. Serpentinite could originate from the Saranovsky and Moivinsky deposits in the Perm region. The shape of the products was divided into 5 groups, among which the leading ones were oval and teardrop-shaped. Most of the jewelry had a single through hole, which was more often located in the upper part of the product and was drilled on one side. The use-wear analysis made it possible to identify traces from the manufacture of jewelry, traces from use and traces that appeared as a result of the archeologization of objects. Most products were treated as patches on clothing. The shape and quality of jewelry could depend on both the hardness of the raw materials and the skills of the master. They don't create standard groups. The closest analogies can be found in the ornaments studied at the Ust-Kama burial grounds. The population that left these burial grounds could take part in the formation of the Chalcolithic cultures of the Kama forest.

Neolithic Traditions on the Northern Periphery of the Dalmatepe Culture

The purpose of the study is to reveal the factors that determine the features of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition in the South Caucasus and the spread of the Dalmatepe culture in the region during this period.
 The novelty of this study lies in the confirmation of the Neolithic traditions of Azerbaijan in the Nakhchivantepe layer of the Dalmatepe period, as well as the identification of the boundaries and distinctive features of the northern periphery of the Dalmatepe culture.
 The results of the study indicate that Nakhchivantepe was the main center of Dalmatepe culture in the South Caucasus. Pottery samples found in the nearby settlements of Uchan Agyl, Uzunoba, Bülovgaya, as well as in the settlement of Godedzor on the territory of Zangazur, make it possible to include the Nakhchivanchay river valley and the Zangazur ridge in the northern periphery of the Dalmatepe culture.
 The settlement of Nakhchivantepe is the main center of this periphery and demonstrates a transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic culture in its stratigraphy. The pottery found in the settlement is divided into four main categories: simple chaff-tempered pottery, surface-manipulated pottery, red-slipped pottery, and painted pottery.
 Simple chaff-tempered pottery (Group I) reflects the characteristics of the Kültepe culture (6372-5200), which appeared in the Neolithic period in the Nakhchivanchay valley. Neolithic traditions are also traced in the typology of simple ceramic vessels. Other groups of ceramics (II-IV) are similar to the materials typical for the Dalmatepe culture sites. However, in contrast to the south, ceramics with surface-manipulated ornaments are even more ancient on the northern periphery of the Dalmatepe culture. Some of the specimens are similar to the surface-manipulated ceramics of the Late Neolithic sites of Mil-Karabakh. The findings of this study confirmed the influence of the Azerbaijani Neolithic cultures on the Dalmatepe culture and identified the factors responsible for its spread.

The Chronology of the Ganeshwar Jodhpura Culture: A Reassessment Based on Graffiti and Cross-Cultural Comparisons

The Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Chalcolithic culture was first discovered in the 1970’s post the excavation at Jodhpura and Ganeshwar respectively. However over the years, one of the major drawbacks in the study of the culture is the dating and periodisation. This paper on the basis of ceramic analysis and comparative studies of graffiti is an attempt to divide the site of Ganeshwar into two periods viz. the Early and Mature Period and proposes a new chronology. The characteristics features specifically in terms of ceramics of both the periods have been defined.

Linear Pottery culture on the lower Danube

Archaeological excavations carried out at Sudiţi (Buzău County, Romania) some decades ago unearthed severalLinear Pottery culture features which were subsequently interpreted and used by various researchers in an attempt to explain the origin of Chalcolithic cultures (such as Boian). The poorly published findings generatedconflicting or arguable theories. Even if it is not the only discovery of its kind, the Neolithic feature from Sudiţiis the most complex one from Wallachia. Until new, accurate field research is undertaken, this old discovery isstill appropriate for further discussion, offering some valid points regarding the relation between the local culture and Linear Pottery at the turn of the fifth millennium.

Human palaeoenvironment in the Upper Kama River basin: experience of reconstruction

Here, we present the results of comprehensive (archaeological and palaeoecological) studies undertaken in 2014–2018 in the basin of the Upper Kama River in the north of Perm Region, eastern part of the East European Plain. The main objects for the research were archaeological sites, primarily their chronological attribution and localization specifics. In total, 100 sites belonging to a wide chronological range from the Mesolithic to the Late Middle Ages were identified in the study area. The palaeochannel method was used to identify the association of the archaeological sites to certain landscapes within the river valley. As a result, five morphologically diverse sectors have been identified. For the reconstruction of natural landscapes and plant communities, palynological and plant macrofossil methods were used. Radiocarbon analysis was used to date these events. The initial human habitation of the Upper Kama region took place in the early Holocene, after the formation of the 2nd and 1st river terraces. The Mesolithic sites have been dated to this period. They were located either on the second river terrace, or on the bedrock valley side. In the Middle Holocene, along with the spread of broad-leaved species in forests, 6th–5th floodplain generations were formed, and the river was characterized by high water content. The Neolithic sites located on the Kama river terraces belong to this period. In the end of the Middle Holocene, the maximum distribution of spruce forests began. This was the time of existence of the Garin Chalcolithic Culture settlements. They were located either on the 4th–5th floodplain generations, or on the bedrock valley side. In the end of the Subboreal and first half of the Subatlantic periods, a key role in the forest stand was played by pine, forming southern taiga light coniferous forests. The water content of the Kama decreased. The sites of the Early Iron Age, located on low terraces or in the floodplain, are dated to this time. In the second half of the Subatlantic period of the Holocene, forests acquired modern mid-taiga appearane, which coincided with the arrival of the medieval population. Medieval hillforts were located on the bedrock valley sides, and the settlements were associated with river terraces, shores of oxbow lakes and floodplains of small rivers.

Varna, the prehistoric trade center in the studies of Harald Haarmann. Some critical notes

The name Varna occupies a key place in world ancient history. Everyone has heard about the gold of the phenomenal Varna I necropolis. This is the reason for our interest in the two books published in recent years by the famous German archaeolinguist Harald Haarmann: "The Mystery of the Danube Civilization" (2015) and "In the Footsteps of Indo-Europeans" (2020). The author defines Varna as one of the oldest, permanently inhabited places in Europe. He connects it with the earliest gold and the earliest processing of grapes for wine. He examines the social development of the local society and proclaims the emergence of the upper class and hierarchical structure of the society. For him, the Varna I necropolis testifies to the earliest elitist model, in contrast to other egalitarian Balkan Chalcolithic cultures. These are generally the positives, but along with them, there are many negatives. It turns out that H. Haarmann does not know or does not use terms such as "Varna culture" and "necropolis", but speaks of Varna as of a city and trade center, and of the Varna necropolis as a "field with graves", which is absolutely incorrect. As for the thesis about the "elite cavalry detachments of steppe nomads, bearers of the Kurgan culture, who had conquered Varna peacefully", it reveals a weak knowledge of the facts and is close to absurd. In this sense, the article gives positive assessments of a number of the views of the great archaeolinguist referred to the Chalcolithic center near Varna. At the same time, it does not spare him some critical remarks. Moreover, his books are aimed at the mass reader with a promotional focus. This is what makes some mistakes unwanted and dangerous, which can create a misconception and mislead the reader.

Mining Data on the Spread of Early Metallurgy: Revisiting the Carpathian Hypothesis with Ancient Genomes

This study presents results relevant to understanding the spread of early metallurgy obtained by extracting patterns from a dataset of ancient genomes. It finds that, conservatively, the spread of metallurgy into Italy Remedello Chalcolithic culture can be linked to a probably Bulgaria Chalcolithic-shifted population represented by the genome of n individual associated with Bodrogkeresztúr pottery in Romania. Also conservatively, either a population related to this sample or to populations sampled from the Chalcolithic era Great Hungarian Plain can be associated with Italy North Bell Beakers and some Bell Beakers in France. Traces the samples examined have left give a sense of the geographical pread of the populations they represent. This paper illustrates the use of a data mining technique to support archaeological and humanistic inquiries on cultural development.

Changes in the Near Eastern chronology between the 5th and the 3rd millennium BC: New AMS 14C dates from Arslantepe (Turkey)

In recent years the chronological framework provided by the AMS 14C dating has had a great impact on archaeological studies in the Near East, also affecting the previous synchronization of cultural events across the Mediterranean region. Here we present a consistent set of 14C dates from the site of Arslantepe (Turkey) between the 5th and the 3rd millennium BC. A total of 86 samples of charred wood remains were previously dated by the beta counting method, already providing a general framing to this exceptionally long sequence. However, the stratigraphy of building levels still needed a more accurate analysis, distinguishing sub-phases within the occupational periods. 13 new samples of mainly charred seeds and fruits from the Late Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze I levels have been dated by means of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) A tendency towards older radiocarbon ages is recorded. The new site chronology dates the post-Ubaid levels during the mid-5th millennium BC, well corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic cultures of northern Mesopotamia. The last phases of the Late Chalcolithic were found in quick succession between 3600 and 3200 years BC, confirming the correlation with the Late Uruk culture in southern Mesopotamia. Lastly, the Early Bronze Age I levels appear to be earlier than the previous beta counting chronology. This indicates that the events following the collapse of the Late Chalcolithic Arslantepe society all belong to a very short period of time.

NAHÇIVAN’IN KALKOLİTİK ÇAĞ KÜLTÜRÜ (AZERBAYCAN)

The Chalcolithic Period culture of South Caucasus is studied by different researches, but some problems have not been unsolved. Communications of different stages of Chalcolithic Period culture, especially genesis questions and date of Late Chalcolithic Period culture are not clarified. Now there is a gap between Late Neolithic and Late Chalcolithic Period cultures. In Nakhchivan Kultepe, the Neolithic Period is replaced with the Early Bronze Period, and in the settlements such as Mentesh Tepe, Aratashen and the Khatunarkh-Aknashen Neolithic Period is replaced with the Late Chalcolithic Age. In this regard researches of roots of Late Chalcolithic Period culture in monuments of the Neolithic period were unsuccessful. The Chalcolithic culture of South Caucasus in some researches stated as Early Chalcolithic (4800-4000 BC) and Middle/Late Chalcolithic (4000-3200 BC). In spite of the fact that some researchers carried the early period of the Chalcolithic to the first half of the V. Millennium BC, the middle and late period to the second half of this millennium, however materials of the early and middle period are provided in insignificant quantity. In last years in Nakhchivan that is located on joint of South Caucasus and the Middle East numerous Chalcolithic monuments are revealed. At the same time researches of monuments such as Nakhchivan Tepe, Ucan Agil and Uzun Oba which located on the valley Nakhchivanchay and Sirabchay are revealed the findings relating to early (5000-4600 BC) and middle stage (4600-4400 BC) of Chalcolithic Period. These findings differ from findings of Ovchular Tepe, Tekhut, Sioni, Mentesh Tepe, Aratashen, Berikldeebi, Beyuk Kesik and others. By researches of monuments of the valley Sirabchay, it is clarified that Late Chalcolithic culture has two different periods. The monuments were revealed in the Sirabchay valley belongs to that period, following after the period provided by the settlement Ovcular Tepe (4400-4000 BC). This period represents a final stage of Chalcolithic culture (4000-3600 BC). Research of monuments Nakhchivan allows tracing serial stages of Chalcolithic culture of this region from the V. Millennium BC up to the IV. Millennium BC. Researches show that early and middle stage of Chalcolithic culture of Nakhchivan is connected to Dalma Tepe culture. Pottery like Dalma Tepe with impression and painted ornament is revealed in monuments of the basin of Urmia, Karabag, the Mil-Mugan steppe and East Anatolia. It shows communications of cultures of the basin of Urmia, Azerbaijan and East Anatolia. The influences of cultures of the Middle East to South Caucasus are connected with cultural economic relations. These connections were promoted by rich copper and obsidian deposits of South Caucasus.

A Middle Timnian Nomadic Encampment on the Faynan-Beersheba Road: Excavations and Survey at Nahal Tsafit (Late 5th/Early 4th Millennia B.C.E.)

Excavations at Nahal Tsafit, on the Rotem Plain in the northeastern Negev, have uncovered a Middle Timnian encampment dated to the late 5th/early 4th millennia B.C.E. A large tumulus field, comprising 115 large cairns and three open-air shrines characteristic of the early phases of Timnian culture, was surveyed on the ridge above the site. Although contemporary with the Ghassulian-Beersheba Chalcolithic culture of the settled zone, the architecture revealed and material culture recovered from excavation of the encampment place it clearly in Middle Timnian culture, the desert complement to the Ghassulian. The location of the site on the road between Beersheba and Faynan, and the presence of potsherds originating in Faynan, suggest Timnian involvement in the early copper trade.

Human Figurines from the Region of Tel Halif in Light of Schematic Representations in the Chalcolithic Cultures of the Southern Levant

This article presents a newly discovered figurine of chalky limestone found at a cave close to Tel Halif in the northern Negev during salvage excavations conducted after the cave was partially looted. The figurine is compared with the corpus of figurines with similar iconographic characteristics. Two exemplars found years earlier at Tel Halif itself are reexamined. In light of new data, it is suggested that these figurines should be dated to the Chalcolithic period.

PIT-GRAVE (YAMNAYA) AND PIT-GRAVE-MAIKOP BURIALS AT LEVOYEGORLYKSKY-3, STAVROPOL

We describe four unusual burials (No. 4, 8, 13, and 15) displaying features of the Pit-Grave rite under mound 1 at Levoyegorlyksky-3 in the Stavropol Territory, dating to mid-4th millennium BC. The mound had been constructed to mark the main burial (No. 15), which predates others. While the preservation of skeletons is poor, the position of the deceased was determined as fl exed supine. The mound was encircled by a stone curb (cromlech). Inside the mound and the cromlech, fragments of early Maikop vessels were found. The main burial, however, contained pottery typical of the steppe Chalcolithic cultures. In the intrusive burial No. 4, a Maikop-type dagger, a stone pick, a gold pendant, and a fl int fl ake were found. The dagger has early Maikop parallels, whereas the pick is similar to late Maikop (Dolinskoye) ones, found in the central piedmont of northern Caucasus. This burial presents a striking testimony to the impact of the funerary tradition of the Maikop military elite on the Pit-Grave rite. On the other hand, it suggests that Dolinskoye-type stone picks may evidence the infl uence of the Pit-Grave culture at the early stage of Maikop.

Human Teeth from Strashnaya Cave, the Altai Mountains, with Reference to the Dental Variation in Stone Age Siberia

Human teeth found in layer 31a of Strashnaya Cave, northwestern Altai Mountains, in 1989, are described. The layer relates to the Upper Paleolithic and has been dated to 19,150 ± 80 BP. However, owing to the nature of sedimentation in the areas adjacent to the cave walls, where the teeth were found, these may be either earlier or later. The objective of this study is to examine the possible dental continuity between Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic populations of the Altai-Sayan highland because the teeth from Strashnaya may postdate the respective layer. Given the chronological ambiguity, we compared them with both the Paleolithic and Neolithic specimens from southwestern Siberia. Marked affi nities have been demonstrated between the Strashnaya teeth and those from the Upper Paleolithic sites of Malta, Listvenka, and Afontova Gora II in southern Siberia, suggesting that the Upper Paleolithic population of the Altai Mountains represented the same Southern Siberian dental complex. Certain features link the Strashnaya child with people associated with Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures of the Altai-Sayan region, such as Kuznetsk-Altai and Bolshoy Mys cultures, possibly evidencing evolutionary conservatism.

Being at Home in the Early Chalcolithic. The Longhouse Phenomenon in the Brześć Kujawski Culture in the Polish Lowlands

AbstractThe Brześć Kujawski culture emerged in the Polish Lowlands in the second half of the 5th millennium BC. It shares many characteristic features with Chalcolithic cultures of the Carpathian Basin indicating that BKK communities belonged to the wider ‘late Lengyel interaction sphere’. However, there are very striking regional distinctions in the material culture of these communities, which appear to reflect a conscious attempt to emphasize local identity, incorporating both innovation and conservatism. This article focuses on one of the most distinctive features of this culture – trapezoidal longhouses, presented here in the context of astonishingly various and hierarchical settlement system of the BKK. In this respect the iconic character of houses expressed by the uniformity of their form and size, seems to be a deliberate decision that stressed local identity in reference to the LBK heritage as well as other contemporary communities inhabiting the Polish Lowlands in the 5th millennium BC.

Proto-historic Copper Tools in Rajasthan: An Overview

<p><em>The discovery of metal technology has been a turning point in bringing about a revolutionary change in the living pattern of human race. Certain historical periods got identified with names of metals as prefix signifying the technological know-how of the people. The earliest features of urban life in Indian subcontinent are indebted to Harappan legacy who were skilled in making implements of copper and its alloys. Apart from Harappans, some other cultures also flourished which were either contemporary or later to Harappans. Here, a mention may be made of Chalcolithic Cultures and Copper Hoards Culture located in north, central and western parts of India. The problem of Copper Hoards Culture is still an unresolved issue and a matter of debate among archaeologists. The distinct and unique tool typology of Copper Hoards from Rajasthan is noteworthy in comparison to its counterpart in Gangetic Valley. Copper objects like anthropomorphs, tanged khurpis, shouldered axes, lugged celts etc. are characteristics of Gangetic valley which are conspicuous by their absence in Rajasthan.</em></p>

Ceramics and long-distance trade in early Mesopotamian states

This study evaluates the extent of trade in ceramic vessels (and their contents) throughout Mesopotamia during the later Uruk period of the 4th millennium BCE using instrumental neutron activation analysis. The emergence of the first cities and states in Mesopotamia during the 4th millennium BCE is now well documented, both in the Uruk culture of southern Iraq and the more recently recognized Late Chalcolithic culture of northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey. During the second half of the 4th millennium BCE, people moved out of southern Iraq and into surrounding areas in what Guillermo Algaze (1993) has termed the Uruk expansion. Algaze explained this expansion as a quest for raw materials and proposed a relatively centralized model in which settlements were organized to facilitate trade back to the urban centers of southern Mesopotamia. This explanation has not found universal support. To evaluate the extent of trade in ceramic vessels throughout Uruk Mesopotamia, we sampled and analyzed 385 samples of ceramics and clays from Jebel Aruda and Tell Hadidi in the Euphrates Valley of Syria; Tell Brak in northeastern Syria; Nineveh on the Tigris River; sites in the Susiana Plain of southwestern Iran; and sites surveyed on the Mesopotamian plain. The study showed that it is possible to identify distinct chemical signatures of clays from different parts of Mesopotamia. It also showed that there was virtually no trade in ceramic vessels (large or small) among sites in the vast network of the Uruk expansion, indicating that we need to examine other explanations to account for the near uniformity of Uruk ceramics. While ceramics are not a proxy for all types of exchange, this result suggests that settlements in the Uruk expansion may not have been closely connected by regular exchange.

Quantifying Cereal-Reaping Microwear On Flint Tools: An Experimental Approach

From the earliest Neolithic in the Near East to the last Chalcolithic cultures in Western Europe, certain flint tools have been used as sickles to harvest cereals. Such harvesting tools can be identified through use-wear analyses, because cutting herbaceous plants produces specific wear-traces on the working edge of flint blades. The aim of this work is to explore harvesting-driven microwear variability and, more particularly, intensity of use as a governing factor. To achieve this objective, an experiment was designed consisting in the production of flint replicas to be used as harvesting tools, in various controlled conditions. A simple, cost-effective method of quantifying wear-traces by meas uring polish extent is developed, requiring only classical use-wear observation equipment. Polish extent shows monotonic correlation with the amount of work, expressed either in terms of time or as the quantity of cereals harvested. Polish extent measurement is therefore proposed as a reliable and powerful descriptor of use intensity.Peer reviewe