Chair Restraint Research Articles

モンキーチェアによる反復拘束がアカゲザルの各種生理的パラメータに及ぼす影響

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of repeated chair restraint on some physiological values in the rhesus monkey. Although heart rate and blood pressure increased significantly at the onset of chair restraint, these increased values gradually decreased with repetition of restraint as well as with the lapse of time after restraining. Finally, no elevation of these levels was detected after repetitions lasting eight hours per day for five days. Plasma cortisol, CK and GOT values also showed similar trends. These elevated physiological values at the onset of chair restraint seemed to be due to high sympathetic tone and muscular activity used to try to avoid the restraint. It is concluded that repeated chair restraint has an accommodative component in monkeys resulting in the return of some elevated physiological values to the normal level.

モンキーチエア拘束がアカゲザルの血漿酵素活性値に及ぼす影響

The purpose of this paper was to examine the effect of chair restraint on plasma enzyme values in the rhesus monkey. Six monkeys were restrained to the monkey chair for eight hours. Creatine phosphokinase (CK) value increased significantly three hours after the onset of restraint and LDH value did eight hours after the onset of restraint. The increase in CK, GOT and GPT values continued for 1 or 2 days after the release from restraint. On the other hand, these plasma enzyme values in non-restraint monkeys showed almost no changes. These results indicate that it is necessary to establish a proper method for the adjustment to chair restraint in the rhesus monkey.

Alteration of high density lipoprotein subfraction distribution with induction of serum amyloid A protein (SAA) in the nonhuman primate.

Overnight chair restraint results in a dramatic increase in serum amyloid A protein (apoSAA) of nonhuman primate high density lipoprotein (HDL). To determine whether apoSAA induction resulted in a displacement of indigenous HDL protein or a change in the subfraction distribution of HDL, we analyzed the characteristics of HDL subfractions in eight vervet monkeys before and 24 hr after apoSAA induction. Blood was taken from each animal before and after chair restraint to induce apoSAA. HDL was isolated from the plasma by ultracentrifugation and agarose column chromatography. The isolated HDL was subfractionated by density gradient centrifugation and five resulting subfractions were analyzed for protein and lipid content. With apoSAA induction there was a significant increase in d less than 1.09 g/ml protein, phospholipid, and free and esterified cholesterol which resulted in a 44% increase in the total mass of this subfraction. Concomitantly, there was a significant decrease in d 1.10-1.11 g/ml protein, total cholesterol, and cholesteryl ester, which resulted in a 16% decrease in the total mass of the subfraction. The response of the d 1.10-1.11 and d greater than 1.12 g/ml subfraction protein, cholesterol, and phospholipid concentrations to chair restraint for individual animals was directly proportional to their plasma HDL concentrations. Although there was a change in the HDL subfraction concentrations after chair restraint, there was no change in the lipid composition of the HDL subfractions nor in the total amount of HDL protein. However, the apoSAA/A-I ratio was significantly increased with induction while the apoA-II + C's/A-I ratio remained unchanged. The apoSAA/A-I ratio progressively increased with the density of the HDL subfraction. The protein composition of the d greater than 1.12 g/ml subfraction was changed from an average of three apoA-I and two apoA-II (or C's) molecules per particle to an average of two apoA-I, one apoA-II (or C's), and three or four apoSAA molecules per particle after chair restraint. Thus, apoSAA was predominantly associated with the denser HDL subfractions even though the lighter HDL subfractions were the most responsive in terms of changes in concentration. These data suggest that chair restraint of nonhuman primates induces apoSAA which displaces apoA-I and apoA-II or C's from HDL without altering the overall lipid and protein composition of the particle. In addition, chair restraint alters the concentration of HDL subfractions in ways that may be independent of apoSAA induction.

Operant elevation of blood pressure in unrestrained olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis).

This report describes an operant conditioning method for producing increases in the blood pressure and heart rate of baboons in which (A) chair restraint is completely eliminated by a tether system for continuous direct monitoring of arterial pressure, and (B) electric shock is replaced by blasts of compressed air. In our computer-automated procedure, the home-caged subject receives a banana-flavored reward pellet each time it accumulates 120 s during which its diastolic pressure is above a prespecified criterion. Conversely, the animal receives a blast of compressed air each time it accumulates 120 s during which its diastolic pressure is below criterion. After 20-70 8-h sessions of conditioning, 44%, 28%, 24%, 22%, and 17% elevations over baseline diastolic pressures were observed in five baboons. Systolic pressures also increased from 5% to 28%, and heart rate increased from 7% to 51%. The conditioning procedure was associated with an attenuation of the normal afternoon decline in plasma cortisol levels. These results demonstrate that compressed-air blasting can be used as an alternative to electric shock for operant conditioning of autonomically mediated responses in nonhumn primates. This model may be useful for the study of hypertension, atherosclerosis, and related cardiovascular diseases.

A method of obtaining an epithelial attachment on an endosseous implant

An attempt was made to obtain a soft-tissue seal around the neck of an endosseous implant using a section of root from another tooth in the oral cavity. Six implants were placed bilaterally in the mandibular first molar regions of three monkeys. Four of the six implants were lost during the experimental period. In at least three of the four situations, it was apparent that the animals had removed the implants despite chair restraint. On the basis of clinical evaluation of all implants and histologic examination of the two remaining implants, it was concluded that an epithelial attachment was not present. The absence of an attachment may have been caused by chronic inflammation around the implant wafer. While an epithelial attachment could not be demonstrated in this experiment, it is felt that the rationale for this research project remains valid. Several potential improvements in methodology are suggested.

Hyperalimentation in primates. A nutritional model.

To establish the subhuman primate as an effective laboratory animal in parenteral nutrition research, 18 male macaque monkeys were adapted to chronic chair restraint and maintained on intravenous nutrition for 1- and 2-week periods. The animals remained in the restraint chairs for 11.6 +/- (2.3) weeks and the inferior vena cava catheters remained for 53 +/- (7.8) days. Catheter and metabolic complications during intravenous nutrition infusion were few and morbidity was low. The animals maintained weight, serum albumin, and serum transferrin levels as well as a positive nitrogen balance during the study period. The macaque is a highly suitable model for nutritional studies requiring a controlled environment during long-term studies.

Adrenergic and dopaminergic response to chronic chair restraint in the rhesus monkey.

Prolonged chair restraint and social isolation in the rhesus monkey led to a reduction in the urinary excretion of HVA (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylacetic acid), DOPAC (3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid), VMA methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic acid), and MHPG (3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethylglycol) over a 3 week period. This adaptation to a chronically "stressful" situation corresponds to earlier studies on the rhesus monkey indicating a gradual reduction in the urinary excretion of norepinephrine and epinephrine after initiation of restraint. The following basic information on the urinary excretion of catecholamine metabolites was obtained: (1) the rate of excretion of the dopamine metabolites (HVA and DOPAC) is about four times higher than the rate of excretion of adrenergic metabolites (VMA and MHPG): (2) MHPG is the major adrenergic metabolite in the rhesus monkey; and (3) the excretion rates of the urinary metabolites varied considerably between animals.

The immobilization response in rhesus monkey: A behavioral and electroencephalographic study

Rhesus monkeys maintained in individual cages are rarely inactive when observed by humans unfamiliar to them. It has been observed that these animals display a greatly reduced behavioral repertoire after they are transferred to primate chairs. The present study used systemic behavioral observations to document those changes and to examine additional changes produced by arm restraint. Chair restraint was associated with a reduction in activity which was intensified when animals were further immobilized by arm restraint. This immobilization produced a reduction of tone in all limbs, a reduction of spontaneous behavior, and the appearance of eye closure. Electroencephalographic (EEG) correlates of the behavioral changes were examined also, using quantitative data generated through power spectral analysis of sensorimotor cortical EEG signals. Immobilization was accompanied by a significant increase in spectral density at 12 to 15 Hz which was most marked at mid and far lateral rholandic recording sites. No other significant changes were seen in the frequency bands studied. When the immobilized animal was alerted with novel stimuli, lower frequencies were attenuated but 12- to 15-Hz activity remained enhanced. These findings indicate that a unique immobilization response is elicited by restraint in the rhesus monkey which is associated with discrete changes in both behavior and accompanying EEG patterns.

A radioimmunoassay for tetrahydrocortisol

A radioimmunoassay for urinary tetrahydrocortisol (THF) is described. Antibodies were produced in rabbits against a THF-monohemisuccinate:bovine serum albumin conjugate. The radioimmunoassay procedure involves enzymic hydrolysis of the urine, extraction with ethyl acetate, radioimmunoassay, and separation of free from bound steroid with Somogyi reagents. The antibody showed some cross-reaction with tetrahydro substance S (36%) which does not occur in urine in appreciable amounts and with tetrahydrocortisone (10%) which does. An analysis of monkey urine extracts before and after tlc purification revealed that the THF antibody was specific enough to permit assay of urines for THF during stress experiments without a purification step. THF values obtained correlated very highly with 17-hydroxycorticosteroid values on the same urines obtained from monkeys during a chair restraint experience ( r = 0.97). Also for comparison purposes these same urines were assayed for free THF, total cortisol, and free cortisol. The free (unconjugated) steroids showed the greatest percentage increase over basal levels.

Plasma cortisol in the chronic rhesus monkey preparation (Macaca mulatta)

The short- and long-term effects of surgical procedures and chair restraint on total plasma cortisol were assessed in the chronic rhesus monkey preparation. Three nonpregnant and six pregnant animals were sampled daily, morning and evening. Fetal plasma specimens were obtained simultaneously from the pregnant animals. In the nonpregnant rhesus monkey, a circadian rhythm is present the day following venous catheterization and chair restraint, with individual values similar to those in trained, unanesthetized animals. In the pregnant animals, a postoperative rise in cortisol is followed by a gradual decline to a plateau and a return of circadian rhythm. No consistent daily fluctuations are seen in fetal cortisol, and although correlated with maternal cortisol, the exact relationship is uncertain. The data indicate that operation, as expected, is stressful but acclimation to the chair occurs.

Plasma growth hormone response to capture and venipuncture in caged monkeys.

SummaryA large percentage of very high plasma immunoreactive growth hormone values was observed in cage-housed rhesus monkeys after net capture and manual restraint for saphenous venipuncture during about a 5-min period. Following chair restraint, mean values were significantly lower, but individual values were still somewhat variable apparently in relation to saphenous venipuncture alone, as judged by lower and less variable values obtained by means of remote blood sampling through chronic indwelling venous catheters. The present findings suggesting marked plasma growth hormone responses in the monkey to net capture, handling, and venipuncture, occurring within about a 5-min period, add emphasis to the need to consider not only the sensitivity of this endocrine system to psychological influences, but also the rapidity with which psychoendocrine responses may be reflected in growth hormone levels, even within the time of a single venipuncture.

A simple method for measuring spontaneous motor activity in squirrel monkeys during chair restraint

A simple, reliable and sensitive method for measuring spontaneous motor activity in squirrel monkeys during chair restraint is described. In this method the restraint chair is suspended from a wooden enclosure in a way that allows the chair to swing in any lateral direction. This movement is recorded by two brass rings which are connected to the chair and the fixed wooden enclosure, respectively. These brass rings act as electrical contacts which serve to trigger an electronic recording device. This method is extremely sensitive to even slight movements made by the animal while in the restraint chair and should provide a reliable means of obtaining consistent data under a variety of conditions.

Urinary epinephrine and norepinephrine responses to chair restraint in the monkey

Mean urinary epinephrine levels show a greater than three-fold increase (8.2 μg/day versus baseline of 2.2 μg/day) in monkeys during the first three days after placement in a restraining chair. Epinephrine levels remain significantly elevated, however, only during the first week in a total eight-week period of restraint. Although there also was a tendency for slight initial increases in urinary norepinephrine levels to occur, the changes were not statistically significant. There were no significant differences in either epinephrine or norepinephrine levels in monkeys during cage housing as compared to the second month of chair restraint, indicating no sustained effects of chair restraint on the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system over a two-month period. Some practical, methodological implications of the findings are discussed.

Thyroid (plasma BEI) response to chair restraint in the monkey.

Study of a series of 26 rhesus monkeys revealed significant elevations of plasma butanol extractable iodine (BEI) levels persisting through a 6-day period of chair restraint. There was a mean BEI increase from a control baseline of 3.2 μg% to a peak of 5.1 μg% on the third day of chair restraint. Study of 14 of these monkeys throughout a longer period of 8 weeks of chair restraint indicated that, although duration of response varied considerably between monkeys, mean BEI levels remained significantly elevated through the third week. BEI levels during the second month of chair restraint do not differ significantly from those levels observed in the same monkeys while housed in cages prior to chair restraint. This evidence of thyroid response to an unconditioned emotional stimulus supports findings in previous work with a conditioned emotional stimulus indicating that acute emotional arousal elicits stimulation of the pituitary-thyroid system in the rhesus monkey.

Corticosteroid response to chair restraint in the monkey.

Corticosteroid response to chair restraint in the monkey.

Hypothalamic mediation of growth hormone and adrenal stress response in the squirrel monkey.

Hypothalamic lesions were produced in the squirrel monkey in order to identify the neural pathways by which the emotional stimulus of capture and the stress of ether anesthesia bring about growth hormone (GH) hypersecretion. Plasma GH levels were determined by human GH radioimmunoassay. As an index of pituitary-adrenal activation in these animals, plasma corticoids were measured by competitive binding assay. In unlesioned animals capture led to increased release of GH and to adrenal cortical activation. Chair restraint was followed by continued adrenal cortical hypersecretion unaccompanied Tjy GH discharge, while ether anesthesia induced GH discharge without a significant increase in adrenocortical secretion. Growth hormone responses to capture and ether anesthesia were blocked by relatively small lesions in either anterior or posterior median eminence, while adrenal responses to capture and chair restraint were blocked by lesions in the posterior median eminence in 3 animals. Lesions of the inferior third of the mammillary bodies blocked GH and adrenal responses to capture. GH responses to ether were greatly enhanced in 3 animals with midline optic chiasm lesions and in one animal with a mammillary body lesion, suggesting that structures in these regions may have an inhibiting effect on GH responses. (Endocrinology89: 694, 1971)

The fine structural morphology of adrenal cortices of normal and stressed squirrel monkeys.

AbstractThe fine structural morphology of the male squirrel monkey adrenal cortex has been examined. When compared to other laboratory animals, the squirrel monkey adrenal cortex secretes large amounts of cortisol and maintains extraordinarily high plasma cortisol levels for prolonged periods of time. The normal cortical cells have numerous mitochondria with either a tubulo‐vesicular or lamellar internal membrane arrangement, a well‐developed agranular endoplasmic reticulum which is arranged in juxtaposition to mitochondria and lipid droplets, several lysosomes, and numerous thin‐walled blood vessels of large caliber, suggestive of a rich blood flow through the gland. These characteristics have heretofore been associated with hypersecretion. Their presence in the squirrel monkey cortex, known to have high secretory activity, lends credence to the correlation of hyperdevelopment of the agranular reticulum with increased rates of secretion of corticoids.During chair restraint, the plasma cortisol levels rise two to three fold. Adrenocortical cells thus stressed exhibit a depletion and disorientation of membranes both of the agranular endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria and a loss of ribosomes, lysosomes and, to some degree, intracellular lipid. The animal appears to be responding maximally to the stress of chair restraint. These fine structural characteristics are interpreted as an example of an adrenal cortex in the process of becoming functionally exhausted, since these animals sometimes do not survive the stress of chair restraint.

Patterns of growth hormone and cortisol responses to psychological stress in the squirrel monkey.

Several recent studies have shown that growth hormone (GH) secretion responds acutely to a variety of stressful stimuli in primates. In the present study GH responses to capture, chair restraint, intense sound and aversive conditioning were systematically examined in the squirrel monkey. Plasma cortisol was used as an index of pituitary-adrenal activation. Dissociation of pituitary-adrenal from GH stress responses indicates that specific and separable control mechanisms are involved. An intense sound stimulus was a relatively ineffective stressful stimulus since it was followed by a rise in GH in only 1 of 5 chair restrained animals. During aversive conditioning GH elevation was seen in animals only during training, with no elevation occurring in animals which successfully avoided shock. These findings indicate that growth hormone stress responses are reduced during psychological adaptation. Following capture (which proved to be the most consistently stressful stimulus), levels of both GH and cortisol were significantly higher than resting levels (10.8 vs. 3.9 ng/ml and 755.7 vs. 404.9 μg/100 ml, respectively) ; dissociation of hormone response occurred during chair restraint, with GH falling to resting levels (5.3 ng/ml) and cortisol continuing to rise to a plateau at 60–90 min (1090.6 Mg/100 ml). (Endocrinology88: 956, 1971)

Firing patterns of abducens neurons of alert monkeys in relationship to horizontal eye movement.

Firing patterns of abducens neurons of alert monkeys in relationship to horizontal eye movement.

Pituitary-adrenal function in the squirrel monkey.

During the course of neuroendocrine investigations in squirrel monkeys “base line” values for plasma corticoids by radiostereoassay in excess of 400 μg/100 ml were observed. These values are higher than any reported in other mammalian species. Among possible explanations of this finding is that these animals are resistant to feedback inhibition of ACTH release, that there is an unusual circulating corticoid different from cortisol (the chief adrenal steroid found in other primates), or that there is an unusually high concentration of cortisol binding protein in this species. In order to answer these questions, studies have been made of the nature of the corticoids and the capacity of corticoid binding proteins of squirrel monkey plasma, the rate of disappearance from the circulation of injected 3H-cortisol, and the effects of capture, chair restraint, dexamethasone and ACTH on plasma cortisol. These studies indicate that the major steroid in squirrel monkey plasma is cortisol, that the values in resting, ...