Cervus Elaphus Linnaeus Research Articles

Identification of Cervi cornu pantotrichum and its mixed varieties by UHPLC-QTOF-MS and UHPLC-TQS-MS/MS

Sika deer (Cervus nippon Temminck) and red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus) are the two creatural sources of velvet antlers, which are recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition). However, the counterfeits-moose (Alces alces Linnaeus) antlers are selling as genuine products in the market. In order to strengthen antler quality control and market supervision, a UHPLC-QTOF-MS coupled with chemometrics analysis and UHPLC-TQS-MS were developed and applied to distinguish the Velvet Antler of moose from that of sika deer and red deer. Firstly, the QTOF-MS quantized data obtained from samples treated with trypsin were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) to classify these three kinds of antlers. Then, the potential differential marker peptides were found with orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). Finally, validation of these differential marker peptides was assessed using UHPLC-QTOF-MS, and the results showed that the specific ion pairs (m/z 724.8 → 518.1, m/z 724.8 → 938.3, m/z 732.8 → 526.3, m/z 732.8 → 784.3) were detected in moose deer antler, not in velvet antler of sika deer (Cervus nippon Temminck) and red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus). The methods in the paper and specific ion pairs could be successfully applied to distinguish moose antlers from sika deer antlers and red deer antlers.

Comparative Understory Development in Fenced and Unfenced Beech Forest Stands in the Southern Alps

This study examines the impact of ungulate browsing on the understory dynamics of the Cansiglio Forest, the only European beech high forest in the Southern Limestone Alps. Utilizing seven pairs of fenced versus unfenced forest stands established over two decades, we assessed how fencing affects understory structure and tree regeneration. Significant differences were found in cover, height and vascular species composition in both tree regeneration and shrub layers. Fenced areas showed a significantly higher number and greater average height of young trees, supporting the hypothesis that ungulate browsing negatively impacts tree regeneration. Despite previous studies attributing the lack of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) regeneration primarily to red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) browsing, our findings did not show a significant association of this species with fenced conditions. While Rubus abundance was higher inside fenced areas, overall vascular species richness did not differ. Our results highlight the evident effects of ungulate browsing and suggest the need to consider other factors influencing forest regeneration and understory development. Future research should establish additional study replicates, balanced across diverse site and stand structure conditions, to further explore these dynamics.

Quality-grade analysis of velvet antler materials using ultra-weak delayed luminescence combined with chemometrics

The pharmacological properties of velvet antler, a well-known animal-derived traditional Chinese medicine material and functional food, are extensively acknowledged globally. However, there are significant restrictions on the quality standard and control system of velvet antler. The four quality grades of velvet antler slices taken from Cervus nippon Temminck and Cervus elaphus Linnaeus were evaluated in this study using delayed luminescence (DL) and chemical analysis of protein and amino acid content. Our results demonstrated a significant degree of consistency in the assessment impacts of the measurements for identifying velvet antler slices of different quality grades from Cervus nippon Temminck and Cervus elaphus Linnaeus. Additionally, it is possible to distinguish velvet antler slices of Rangifer tarandus from those of other deer species by exploiting DL parameters (i.e., I0, Beta, Tau, and T). Moreover, there is a strong correlation between the DL parameters and particular amino acids detected in velvet antler slices. As an innovative, quick, and systematic methodology, DL enables the examination of the overall property of various grades of velvet antler slices. The integrated assessment using DL and chemical components can give a novel method for determining the quality of animal-derived herbs and functional foods.

Juvenile toxicity study of deer antler extract in rats

Ethnopharmacological relevanceDeer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus) antler extract has been traditionally used in many Asian countries to prevent and treat various diseases. Deer antler extract is generally considered to be safe because humans have been exposed to it for a long time and it has been used as a tonic medicine originating from naturally occurring product. However, the comprehensive toxicological potential of deer antler extract during the juvenile period has not been investigated and its safety for juveniles remains unclear. Aim of the studyThe aim of the present study was to comprehensively investigate the potential toxicological effects of deer antler extract during the juvenile period. Materials and methodsAs part of a safety assessment of the juvenile period, two separate studies, a juvenile toxicity study and a uterotrophic bioassay, were conducted in accordance with Good Laboratory Practice regulations and test guidelines. In the juvenile toxicity study, deer antler extract was administered daily by oral gavage to Sprague-Dawley rats at doses of 0, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg during the juvenile period to investigate potential toxicities on general systemic, developmental, and reproductive functions. For the uterotrophic bioassay, deer antler extract was administered daily by oral gavage to Sprague-Dawley rats at doses of 0, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg on postnatal days 19–21 to investigate the estrogen-mimicking effects. ResultsThe results showed that deer antler extract was non-toxic and no observable adverse effects on general systemic function, developmental and reproductive function, and estrogen-mimetic effects were observed with dosing up to 2000 mg/kg during the juvenile period. ConclusionThe safety of deer antler extracts was demonstrated in these studies and the results of this study can be used to evaluate human risk or determine the maximum recommended starting dose of deer antler extract for further clinical trials.

Jinfeng pills ameliorate premature ovarian insufficiency induced by cyclophosphamide in rats and correlate to modulating IL-17A/IL-6 axis and MEK/ERK signals.

Jinfeng Pill (JFP) is a classical Chinese medicine formula and composed of 9 herbs, including Epimedium brevicornu Maxim (Yinyanghuo), Cervus elaphus Linnaeus (Lurong), Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. (Renshen), Equus asinus (EJiao), Ligustrum lucidum W.T.Aiton (Nvzhenzi), Reynoutria multiflora (Thunb.) Moldenke (Heshouwu), Curculigo orchioides Gaertn (Xianmao), Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. (Rougui) and Leonurus japonicus Houtt. (Yimucao). The formula is clinically used to regulate menstrual cycle and alleviate polycystic ovarian syndrome due to its capabilities of ovulation induction. It is therefore presumed that JFP could be used for the therapy of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) but the assumed efficacy has not been fully substantiated in experiment. To evaluate the effectiveness of JFP on cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced POI and preliminarily explore its potential mechanisms of action. An experimental rat model of POI was established by using CTX induction to assess the efficacy of JFP. The potential targets of action for JFP alleviating POI were predicted by the combination of network pharmacology and transcriptomics and finally validating by RT-qPCR and Western blot. JFP alleviated the damages of ovarian tissue induced by CTX in the rat model of POI via significantly decreasing serum levels of FSH and LH and the ratio of FSH/LH and increasing the levels of E2 and AMH, accompanied with promoting ovarian folliculogenesis and follicle maturity and reversing the depletion of follicle pool. With the analysis of network pharmacology, pathways in cancer, proteoglycans in cancer, PI3K-AKT, TNF and FoxO signaling pathways were predicted to be influenced by JFP. The results of RNA-seq further revealed that IL-17 signaling pathway was the most important pathway regulated by both CTX and JFP, following by transcriptional misregulation in cancer and proteoglycans in cancer. Combining the two analytical methods, JFP likely targeted genes associated with immune regulation, including COX-2, HSP90AA1, FOS, MMP3 and MAPK11 and pathways, including IL-17,Th17cell differentiation and TNF signaling pathway. Finally, JFP was validated to regulate the mRNA expression of FOS, FOSB, FOSL1, MMP3, MMP13 and COX-2 and decrease the release of IL-17A and the protein expression of IL-6 and suppress the phosphorylation of MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 in CTX induced POI rats. Jinfeng Pill is effective to ameliorate the symptoms of POI induced by CTX in the model of rats and its action is likely associated with suppressing IL-17A/IL-6 axis and the activity of MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signaling.

Pilose antler (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus) polysaccharide and polypeptide extract inhibits bone resorption in high turnover type osteoporosis by stimulating the MAKP and MMP-9 signaling pathways

Ethnopharmacological relevancePilose antler is a traditional Chinese medicine used to improve kidney function, strengthen tendons and bones, and prolong life, among other uses. It is widely employed in the treatment of osteoporosis. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the treatment of high turnover osteoporosis are not fully understood. Aim of the studyThe present study aimed to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying pilose antler polysaccharide and polypeptide extracts in inhibiting bone resorption in high turnover osteoporosis, and compare the effects of the two components alone and in combination to explore whether they could produce synergistic enhancement effects. Materials and methodsThe quantitative and qualitative characteristics of pilose antler polysaccharide and polypeptide extracts were detected by UV–visible spectrophotometry and high-performance liquid chromatography. A rat model of retinoic acid-induced osteoporosis was used to evaluate the inhibitory effect of the extracts on bone resorption. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect the activity of factors related to high turnover type osteoporosis in rat serum. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of proteins related to the MAKP and MMP-9 signaling pathways in rat femurs. Fluorescence quantitative PCR was used to detect the transcription levels of genes related to the MAKP and MMP-9 signaling pathways in rat femur tissues. Hematoxylin and eosin staining were used to observe the osteoprotective effects of pilose antler polysaccharides and polypeptides. ResultsThe yield of pilose antler polysaccharides was 8.3%, and was mainly composed of mannose, glucosamine hydrochloride, glucuronic acid, Galacturonic acid, Galactose hydrochloride, glucose, and galactose. The yield of the polypeptides was 26.2%, and eighty percent of the molecular weight of the antler polypeptides was 1.6 kDa-7kD, among which, the molecular weight of 7kD peptide accounted for 52% of the total. Both polysaccharides and peptides could reduce the activities of TRACP, OCN, ERK1, JNK, and MMP-9 in rat serum and reduce both the protein expression and gene transcription levels of ERK1, JNK, and MMP-9 in rat femur tissue with significant differences compared with the model group. Both extracts exerted significant protective effects on rat femur tissue. The effect of pilose antler polypeptides alone was better than that of polysaccharides either alone or in combination. ConclusionsPilose antler polysaccharides, polypeptides, and their mixtures could inhibit the occurrence of bone resorption of high turnover osteoporosis by stimulating the MAKP and MMP-9 signaling pathways to reduce the expression of the ERK1, JNK, and MMP-9 genes and proteins, and could help alleviate bone loss caused by retinoic acid. Pilose antler polypeptides had a stronger effect on inhibiting bone resorption. The combination of the two components did not show synergistic enhancement effect, and the polysaccharide tended to moderate the inhibitory enhancement effect of the polypeptide.

Assessing supernumerary root occurrence as a possible adaptation enhancing teeth performance in Mediterranean deer populations

Teeth root morphology and integrity are essential to provide appropriate attachment, allowing for continuous and functional movement, with implications for adequate food processing, animal performance, and longevity. We studied the occurrence of supernumerary roots in mandibular molariform teeth of red deer ( Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) from seven separate populations spanning a range of latitudes in the Iberian Peninsula. We analyzed the influence of several factors, including sex, origin (native vs. reintroduced), lineage, and habitat, to assess extra root prevalence variations. The highest prevalence in deciduous teeth was found in pm3 (14%) and in permanent teeth in M1 (3%). We found significant differences between areas, lineages, and soil type; however, no significant relationships were found with the origin or the sex of individuals. We speculate that the high prevalence of supernumerary roots in M1 might be related to increased wear in grazers. Furthermore, we suggest that this high prevalence in deciduous teeth might be associated with a hard diet, dry climatic conditions, and a harsh weaning period, which indicate that supernumerary roots might have an adaptive value.

Immunomodulatory effects of aqueous extract of velvet antler (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus) and its simulated gastrointestinal digests on immune cells in vitro

Velvet antler, a traditional Chinese medicine, is believed to have body-strengthening, immunomodulatory and anti-aging effects. It has been used in Chinese commercial functional foods and nutraceuticals. This study aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory effects of aqueous extract of velvet antler (AEVA) from Cervus elaphus Linnaeus and its simulated gastrointestinal digests (SGDs) in vitro. Experiments were carried out by measuring the effects of AEVA and SGDs on splenocyte proliferation, neutral red pinocytosis and nitric oxide (NO) production by macrophages. AEVA (10-400 μg/mL) showed inhibitory effects on concanavalin A (ConA)-stimulated splenocyte proliferation while no difference was observed when lipopolisaccharide (LPS) was used as stimulus. An inhibitory effect was also observed in neutral red pinocytosis by AEVA treated macrophages. During simulated gastrointestinal digestion, AEVA kept and strengthened its inhibitory effect on ConA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation. However, digestion of AEVA counteracted the inhibitory effect on pinocytosis. In addition, AEVA alone had no effect on NO production by macrophages while some SGDs (200 μg/mL) increased NO production by LPS-stimulated macrophages. The results indicated that AEVA could keep its inhibitory effect on T-cells by oral administration. In contrast, the effect of AEVA on macrophage function was changed during digestion.

Reproductive senescence in free-ranging North American elk Cervus elaphus Cervidae

Abstract Successful production of calves is necessary for growth of North American elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus 1758) populations, but few studies have evaluated age-related effects on both the conception and survival of a calf to weaning in multiple free-ranging populations. Conception and survival of calves to weaning were both affected by maternal age, with old (age 9 and older) females showing reproductive senescence as compared to prime-aged (ages 2–8) females despite achieving similar or greater size and condition. Reproductive senescence in our free-ranging populations ultimately resulted in old females weaning fewer calves (0.42 calves/female) than did prime-aged females (0.64 calves/female). Other factors, especially maternal size, also influenced conception and survival to weaning, and these interacted with age in a consistent manner, i.e. larger females or females in better condition were more likely to conceive and successfully wean calves within each age class. Female age structure receives less consideration in ungulate management than does male age structure, despite demonstrated impacts on population productivity of multiple species because of reproductive senescence. Because of the large proportion of individuals in senesced age classes in elk populations, low productivity in populations may simply reflect female age structure, rather than other frequently hypothesized factors.

Оцінка екологічної ефективності природоохоронних заходів із збереження біорізноманіття за індикатором «жива планета» в Чернігівській області

Оцінка екологічної ефективності природоохоронних заходів із збереження біорізноманіття за індикатором «жива планета» в Чернігівській області

Identification of velvet antler and its mixed varieties by UPLC-QTOF-MS combined with principal component analysis

Many species of velvet antler have been used as traditional medicine for thousands of years; however, as medicinal materials, velvet antler derived from different animals have different clinical effects. To distinguish the differences and homologies, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadruple-time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) was developed and applied to identify these antler samples derived from Cervus nippon Temminck, Cervus elaphus Linnaeus and Rangifer tarandus Linnaeus, which were first tested and compared at the molecular level of protein. The UPLC-MS data of the trypsin digested samples were subjected to PCA, and the potential markers based on peptide were depicted to illustrate their differences. With the integrated strategy combining UPLC-QTOF-MS with PCA, the results from this study indicated that the proposed methods could be successfully applied to distinguish reindeer antler from sika deer antler and red deer antler, which were prescribed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2015 edition).

Elk (Cervus elaphus) railway mortality in Ontario

Wildlife railway research is highly underrepresented in science despite documented wildlife–train collision mortalities. Gathering baseline information is imperative to the development of effective train collision mitigation, especially for at-risk or small reintroduced populations such as elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) in eastern North America. We tested our hypotheses that elk–train collision rates vary in relation to railway structure and weather by using a combination of radiotelemetry and railway mortality surveys. Elk were closer to the railway in winter than in any other season. Elk–train collision sites were significantly closer to the apex of bends in the railway than random locations along the railway, and collision rates were positively related to snow depth. Railways may be perceived by elk as easy travel corridors, and deep snow likely prohibits escape from oncoming trains. This study gathered important information about an under-studied aspect of wildlife–human conflicts and provides a basis for the investigation of other species that may be affected by railways.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) increasing density effects on species assemblage of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in Alpine forests

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) increasing density may trigger several modifications at the ecosystem level. Positive and negative impact of red deer on the invertebrate fauna is known in northern Europe, whereas it is currently unknown in the Alps. In this paper, we tested the impact of red deer density on ground beetles’ (Coleoptera: Carabidae) richness and species distribution in forests of the central-eastern Italian Alps (Stelvio National Park). Carabid beetles were sampled using pitfall traps in nine forest sites with different density of red deer. Carabid species richness was related to elevation, habitat type and red deer density in summer and winter using generalised linear mixed models and canonical correspondence analysis. The high winter red deer density affected positively the carabid species richness. Overgrazing seemed to increase presence of generalist species of dried and unshaded soils and decreasing of specialised species typical of well-preserved Rhododendro-Vaccinietum cover. Accordingly, the presence of patches with different red deer density seems to contribute to maintaining high levels of carabid beetles’ richness, albeit overgrazing needs to be monitored because it is likely to cause a local decrease of specialised forest species.

Seroprevalence to and influence of exposure to bovine reproductive disease causative agents on pregnancy and preweaning calf survival of elk (Artiodactyla: Cervidae)

Una parte del éxito de las reintroducciones de ciervo wapití (C. elaphus) en México depende de las interacciones y posibles conflictos con el ganado doméstico. Algunos agentes patógenos pueden impactar la reproducción del wapití y al ganado, pero es raro que se considere para los rumiantes silvestres cuando existe un declive en la productividad de la población. Se investigó la exposición a enfermedades de los wapití utilizando un perfil de aborto bovino (e.g. Brucelosis, leptospirosis, rinotraqueitis infecciosa bovina, (RIB), diarrea viral bovina, e infección por Neospora sp.), ya que estas enfermedades pueden afectar negativamente a la reproducción de los bovinos y rumiantes silvestres, y el wapití y el ganado frecuentemente co-ocurren. Utilizamos una regresión logística jerárquica para modelar la proporción de preñez de las hembras en periodo de lactancia (un sustituto para la supervivencia de la cría al destete) como una función de la población y la exposición de las enfermedades reproductivas. Se hicieron pruebas a poblaciones de wapití y fueron expuestos a 2-4 de los agentes patógenos evaluados, excepto para la brucelosis, que no estaba presente. La preñez de las hembras osciló entre 0.73-0.96 y la proporción de supervivencia al pre-destete desde 0.40-0.67 entre poblaciones. La época de preñez varió por población en todos los contrastes (P <0,016), pero no por la exposición a cualquier enfermedad (P> 0,213). La proporción de hembras lactantes en otoño no varió entre las poblaciones (P> 0,247), ni por la exposición a cualquier patógeno (P> 0,281). La exposición a patógenos no afectó la productividad del wapití, a pesar de los niveles de exposición que reflejan previos estudios en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica y la baja preñez y la sobrevivencia de crías entre algunas poblaciones. Debido a su presencia en todas las poblaciones de wapití en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, si los productores de ganado adyacentes a los sitios de introducción de wapití en México están viendo menos crías que las esperadas, es posible que quieran vigilar su ganado para IBR para ver si BHV-1 puede ser un posible factor contribuyente, ya que el patógeno está relacionado con la reproducción y es probable que esté presente en los wapití.

Factors affecting gray wolf (Canis lupus) encounter rate with elk (Cervus elaphus) in Yellowstone National Park

Despite encounter rates being a key component of kill rate, few studies of large carnivore predation have quantified encounter rates with prey, the factors that influence them, and the relationship between encounter rate and kill rate. The study’s primary motivation was to determine the relationship between prey density and encounter rate in understanding the mechanism behind the functional response. Elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) population decline and variable weather in northern Yellowstone National Park provided an opportunity to examine how these factors influenced wolf (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) encounter rates with elk. We explored how factors associated with wolf kill rate and encounter rate in other systems (season, elk density, elk group density, average elk group size, snow depth, wolf pack size, and territory size) influenced wolf–elk encounter rate in Yellowstone National Park. Elk density was the only factor significantly correlated with wolf–elk encounter rate, and we found a nonlinear density-dependent relationship that may be a mechanism for a functional response in this system. Encounter rate was correlated with number of elk killed during early winter but not late winter. Weak effects of snow depth and elk group size on encounter rate suggest that these factors influence kill rate via hunting success because kill rate is the product of hunting success and encounter rate.

Long-term aspen dynamics, trophic cascades, and climate in northern Yellowstone National Park

We report long-term patterns of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) recruitment for five ungulate exclosures in the northern ungulate winter range of Yellowstone National Park. Aspen recruitment was low (<3 aspen·ha−1·year−1) in the mid-1900s prior to exclosure construction due to herbivory by Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) but increased more than 60-fold within 25 years after exclosure construction despite a drying climatic trend since 1940. Results support the hypothesis that long-term aspen decline in Yellowstone’s northern range during the latter half of the 20th century was caused by high levels of ungulate herbivory and not a drying climate. Gray wolves (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) were reintroduced during 1995–1996. For the period 1995–2012, we summarized annual predator–prey ratios, ungulate biomass, and drought severity. The average density of young aspen increased from 4350 aspen·ha−1 in 1997–1998 to 8960 aspen·ha−1 in 2012; during the same time period, those >1 m in height increased over 30-fold (from 105 to 3194 aspen·ha−1). Increased heights of young aspen occurred primarily from 2007 to 2012, a period with relatively high predator–prey ratios, declining elk numbers, and decreasing browsing rates. Consistent with a re-established trophic cascade, aspen stands in Yellowstone’s northern range have increasingly begun to recover.

Cryptosporidium ubiquitum, C. muris and Cryptosporidium deer genotype in wild cervids and caprines in the Czech Republic.

A total of 269 faecal samples of various game animals, including 136 red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus), 64 European fallow deer (Dama dama [Linnaeus]), 26 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus [Zimmermann]), and 43 mouflon sheep (Ovis orientalis musimon Pallas) were collected at 15 game preserves across the Czech Republic and examined for infection with species of Cryptosporidium Tyzzer, 1910 using microscopy (following aniline-carbol-methyl violet staining) and molecular tools. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in one faecal sample originating from red deer. Ten positive cases of infection with cryptosporidia, including the case that was positive by microscopy, were detected using nested PCR. No associations between infection with cryptosporidia and diarrhoea were detected. Phylogenetic analyses based on the small subunit of the rRNA gene revealed the presence of three Cryptosporidium species/genotypes in ten positive samples: Cryptosporidium ubiquitum Fayer, Santin et Macarisin, 2010 was identified in five red deer, C. muris Tyzzer, 1907 in three samples (from a red deer, white-tailed deer and mouflon sheep), and Cryptosporidium deer genotype in two white-tailed deer. Subtyping of isolates of C. ubiquitum based on sequence analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein gene revealed that they belong to the XIId family. Finding C. muris and C. ubiquitum XIId for the first time in various wild cervids and caprines broadens their host range.

Purification and identification of anti-inflammatory peptides derived from simulated gastrointestinal digests of velvet antler protein (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus)

The objective of this study was to identify anti-inflammatory peptides from simulated gastrointestinal digest (pepsin–pancreatin hydrolysate) of velvet antler protein. The hydrolysate was purified using ultrafiltration and consecutive chromatographic methods. The anti-inflammatory activity of the purified fraction was evaluated by the inhibition of NO production in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Four anti-inflammatory peptides, VH (Val–His), LAN (Leu–Ala–Asn), AL (Ala–Leu), and IA (Ile–Ala), were identified by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Each of these peptides demonstrated a U-shaped dose–effect relationship. VH, LAN, AL and IA showed the strongest anti-inflammatory activities at 200 μg/mL, that is, 15.5%, 13.0%, 16.0% and 11.2% inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced NO production, respectively. Additionally, the enhanced NO inhibitory activity was observed for the peptides mixture, indicating the possible synergistic effects. These results suggested that the peptides derived from velvet antler protein could potentially be used as a promising ingredient in functional foods or nutraceuticals against inflammatory diseases.

Effect of winter conditions on wild ungulates mortality in the Owl Mountains (Poland)

Abstract Relations between climatic factors during the winter season (n days with frost <0oC and −10oC; n days with snow cover: >1 cm, >10 cm and >30 cm; maximum snow cover during season [cm]) and mortality in free-living ungulates (red deer Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758, roe deer Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758 and mouflon Ovis aries musimon Linnaeus, 1758) in the Owl Mountains (Lower Silesia – Poland) in years 1998–2010 were investigated. Significant effects of all analysed climatic factors on ungulates mortality were documented. Correlations (Pearson) between such weather factors as the depth of snow cover and number of days with frost and recorded mortality in total animal populations analysed ranged from r = 0.33 to r = 0.77. The least adapted to local weather conditions was mouflon introduced to this area ca. 100 years ago from more southern parts of Europe. Roe deer species seems to be environmentally plastic, and are doing quite well in severe winters. Tolerance of red deer to the snow cover is much lower at low temperatures due to the fact that this species, during the period of snow cover, has limited access to the plants covered with snow and difficult access to food base.

Quantitative Analysis of Nucleosides and Nucleobases in Deer Antler: Variation in Different Species

An HPLC-diode array detector analytical method was developed for the determination of 10 nucleosides and nucleobases, e.g. uracil, cytidine, uridine, hypoxanthine, inosine, guanine, guanosine, thymidine, adenosine and adenine, in 29 batches of deer antlers deriving from 11 species of deer: the official species of Cervi Cornu Pantotrichum recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeia, i.e., Cervus nippon Temminck and Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, were included. This established HPLC–diode array detector method was validated to be sensitive, precise and accurate in determining the nucleosides and nucleobases of deer antlers. Quantitative analyses showed that most of deer antlers contained high amounts of nucleosides and nucleobases, except the amounts of cytidine, thymidine, adenosine and adenine; however, which varied greatly in different species and different regions of collection. The similarity of chemical fingerprints was determined, and the antlers from C. nippon and C. elaphus showed the highest similarity, suggesting the possible application in authentication. However, the species discrimination of deer antler could not be fully revealed by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and/or principal component analysis (PCA).