Certification Initiatives Research Articles

The public purchase of aphrodisiac products without prescriptions in the Alahsa region of KSA

Abstract Objectives To investigate requests for common prescription-only aphrodisiacs across community pharmacies in the Alahsa region of KSA. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among conveniently selected pharmacies in the eastern region of Alahsa, KSA. Self-administered questionnaires were directly distributed to 73 consenting community pharmacies. Completed questionnaires were coded, reviewed for accuracy and entered into a database in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 19.0; IBM Corporation, Somers, NY). The data were analysed using descriptive analysis. Results The survey response rate was 72.60%. With respect to the availability of aphrodisiacs and sexual supplements, most of the pharmacists disclosed that they had stocks of Viagra and Cialis. The most common men's health complication reported by pharmacists was erectile dysfunction (n = 12, 22.6%), followed by premature ejaculation (n = 4, 7.5%) and low sexual desire (n = 1, 1.9%). Less than half of pharmacists (n = 9, 16.9%) cited Viagra and Cialis as preferred drugs for treating premature ejaculation. Approximately 32 (60.3%) proposed delayed sprays as the first line of action, while 13 (24.5%) considered antidepressants as their first-choice drug. Conclusion The non-prescription dispensing of prescription-only medicines, including sexual enhancement products, is common in KSA. The majority of pharmacists continue to violate pharmaceutical laws without recognizing the potential harm they are causing their communities. Stakeholders should organize training and certification initiatives to ensure that pharmacists are aware of and comply with national pharmaceutical laws. These agencies should also ensure that pharmacies maintain safe and ethical practices.

Local alternatives to private agricultural certification in Ecuador: Broadening access to ‘new markets’?

One option for sustaining smallholder peasant (campesino in Spanish) agriculture and diversified agricultural production systems in is improved access to niche markets or ‘new markets’ (Hebinck et al., 2015). However a common pre-requisite to enter these markets is private third party agricultural certification. Most agricultural certification initiatives, such as organic and Fairtrade, are private initiatives that are costly for small-producers with limited access to capital. This study analyzes the role local governments can play in through public certification, analyzing three certification initiatives created by provincial governments in Ecuador. These cases convert certification into a public rather than a private good and potentially broaden access to certification by marginalized producers. However our research concluded that access to certification may not be effective if it is not accompanied by other measures and policies favorable to small-scale producers.

Sustainable Coffee Marketing:Challenges and the Way Forward

This paper analyzed markets for sustainable coffee by taking into account five individual sustainable coffee initiatives, that is, 4C (Common Codes for Coffee Community), Utz, Rainforest Alliance (RFA), Fair-trade Labeling Organization (FLO), and Organic coffee. The sustainable coffee production experienced a phenomenal growth over the past decade. However, the volumes of sales represent only a minor portion of production. Less than 25% of sustainable coffee produced was 'actually sold' as sustainable, while the remaining was just sold as 'ordinary' conventional coffee, without receiving any extra market benefits. Among the individual coffee certification initiatives, 4C (Common Codes for Coffee Community) signaled a more serious over-supply in the global market, wherein only 6% of its overall sustainable production was actually sold as sustainable over 2008-12. During the same period, Utz coffee certification could sell 25%, Rainforest Alliance (RFA) could trade 50%, and organic certified coffee could sell 55% of its standard-compliant production as sustainable. The study revealed that global sustainable coffee market is characterized by massive 'over-supply'; demand being a major constraint. Underpinning this issue is the need for sustainable coffee market. The current market challenge is to stabilize mismatch between demand and supply for sustainable coffee. From a sustainable development perspective, this remains a serious matter of concern for policy makers, public institutions, and multi-stakeholders to engage in market-based control mechanism in constructing effective 'supply- management base' as a strategy for price-stabilization and to enhance further sustainable growth. At a micro level in India, coffee certification is still at an infancy stage, contributing to just 2% of total global sustainable production. The Indian Coffee Board and apex coffee organizations need to work in this direction to encourage both sustainable production and marketing, so as to assist growers in assessing preferential market benefits, besides supporting high quality 'Indian coffee' being traded at both the global and domestic levels.

Auditing Web accessibility: The role of interest organizations in promoting compliance through certification

Previous research on Web accessibility policy has focused on the application of anti-discrimination policies to the Web and has yet to explore fully, the mediators to policy implementation and compliance. Policy analyses and semi-structured interviews with 34 participants in the United Kingdom and United States demonstrate that interest organizations, including non-profit and for-profit organizations, support the implementation of anti-discrimination policies by providing audit and certification services. First, performance certification demonstrates the quality of a Web site, and interest organizations have developed certification initiatives based on international performance standards developed by the private sector. Second, professional certification demonstrates the quality of an individual’s knowledge and experience, yet despite the absence of educational standards, interest organizations offer professional certification. Third, procedural certification demonstrates the quality of organizational processes, yet despite the development of a national procedural standard, interest organizations do not offer procedural certification. This paper concludes by offering recommendations for enhancing the use of certification to achieve Web accessibility and provides suggestions for future research.

Certification of Markets, Markets of Certificates: Tracing Sustainability in Global Agro-Food Value Chains

There is a blossoming of voluntary certification initiatives for sustainable agro-food products and production processes. With these certification initiatives come traceability in supply chains, to guarantee the sustainability of the products consumed. No systematic analysis exists of traceability systems for sustainability in agro-food supply chains. Hence, the purpose of this article is to analyze the prevalence of four different traceability systems to guarantee sustainability; to identify the factors that determine the kind of traceability systems applied in particular supply chains; and to assess what the emergence of economic and market logics in traceability mean for sustainability. Two conclusions are drawn. Globalizing markets for sustainable agro-food products induces the emergence of book-and-claim traceability systems, but the other three systems (identity preservation, segregation and mass balance) will continue to exist as different factors drive traceability requirements in different supply chains. Secondly, traceability itself is becoming a market driven by economic and market logics, and this may have consequences for sustainability in agro-food supply chains in the future.

Prospects for sustainability certification of metals

Certification initiatives are product-focused, rely on standards and use sustain- ability metrics to inform end-users on the provenance of commodities. In the metals sector, the phenomenon of formal certification programs has recently gained traction. Four initia- tives are reviewed to illustrate the status and prospects of metal certification. The prime case is the Conflict Free Smelter Program operated by the global electronics industry. This scheme has developed and applied standards on mineral chain-of-custody, including use of third-parties to audit smelters and refineries all over the world. Additional programs dis- cussed are the Green Lead Project, Fair Trade and Fair Mined gold, and the Responsible Jewellery Council. Collectively these initiatives address a variety of sustainability criteria, including social, economic and environmental dimensions, but focus only on precious and specialty metals (Au, platinum group, Pb, Sn, Ta and W). Metals certifications programs are building capacity and infrastructure compared to mature programs in agriculture and other commodity sectors. Opportunities and issues for growth of metals certification are considered.

The Role of Coffee in the Development of Southwest Ethiopia's Forests: Farmers' Strategies, Investor Speculation, and Certification Projects

This article examines the role of coffee in the agriculture of southwest Ethiopian highlands, a context characterized by recent huge private coffee estate developments, coffee certification projects and smallholdings. The analysis shows that smallholder farmers prioritize staple crops, and allocate land and labor to coffee only once food production objectives have been reached. It also underscores the diversity of the local peasantry, often treated as a homogeneous group in development projects designed to boost farmers' income through coffee production. Based on this analysis, the article evaluates the effects of recent coffee-oriented development policies: state forest concessions for coffee investment, and two coffee certification projects (UTZ-Certified and Fair-Trade/Organic). Because they omit the differentiated farmers' strategies, these certification initiatives fail to improve local populations' livelihoods and accelerate incipient socioeconomic inequalities. Moreover, when applied to big private plantations, they participate in farmers' dispossession from critical forest resources essential to households' food self-sufficiency.

Fair Trade and Contesting Market Relations

One of the defining features of economic globalization is the tying together of the fates of people in the economic North and South in new and complex ways. Interest in ethical certification of product sourcing and processing emerged in the middle of the 20th century in responses by the North to the plight of the desperately poor in the South. Fairtrade is an ethical certification initiative that seeks to embed trading partnerships based on dialogue, transparency and respect and strives for greater equity in the terms of international trade. The Fair Trade model advances the view that engagement with mainstream markets is an effective way of assisting development such that dominant views of capitalism are contested and ultimately changed from within existing market structures. This symposium contributes to the 2013 theme of the AOM by seeking to share scholarly work that focuses on advancing theory and knowledge about the origins, processes and impacts of ethical certification of agricultural farming practices, supply chain and distribution networks, and consumer products. The symposium showcases insights from researchers with extensive experience of both working with Fairtrade-certified organizations and researching the practices, processes, impacts and prospects of ethical certification initiatives. In our presentations and discussion we will consider organizations at different stages in the supply chain, extending from Fairtrade-certified agricultural cooperatives and corporate-owned plantations in developing countries to small alternative trading organizations and multinational retailers in the developed world. Three scholars will present research concerning: the institutionalization of Fair Trade (Doherty); the impact of Fair Trade on farmers and communities (Hyun-Seung); and contesting and critiquing the prospects of mainstreaming Fair Trade principles (McMurtry). The development of Fair Trade markets: Comparative study of five countries Presenter: Bob Doherty; U. of York Critical perspectives on “mainstreaming” Fair Trade Presenter: John Justin McMurtry; York U. The impact of Fair Trade on tea producer organizations in East Africa Presenter: Anna Kim; U. of Cambridge

Is Forest Certification a Hegemonic Force? The FSC and its Challengers

Certification initiatives are an innovative response to both a perceived governance gap in industry regulation and the demands made on industry by civil society groups. They develop criteria for sustainable practices along supply chains, monitor compliance, and reward acquiescent firms by mitigating reputational risks and differentiating products for environmentally conscious consumers. They seek to accomplish this with minimal cost to taxpayers, nominal disruption to trade, and trivial cost to the private sector in terms of fees or inefficiencies. This article examines the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification scheme as an example of the move toward nonstate, market-driven environmentalism. By utilizing a critical, Gramscian approach, it finds that while the FSC can be seen as embedded in, and furthering the agenda of, the neoliberal political economy, a close comparison to rival, producer-backed schemes exposes its antihegemonic underpinnings.

The Gap Between Theory and Reality of Governance: The Case of Forest Certification in Quebec (Canada)

Forest governance has greatly evolved over the last few decades, moving from a state-based management process to a more private one. This evolution enabled stakeholders to become more involved in forest management decisions. The process of forest certification also encouraged greater participation in civil society. However, few studies have been done on the role of local stakeholders in forest certification initiatives. We used a qualitative approach to define the scope of local stakeholders' participation. Results show that their role mainly lies in the implementation phase of certification, where they are consulted more often. Stakeholders are less involved in the monitoring of forest certification and are not entirely satisfied with the place they are offered. We argue that if certification is to become an authentic governance process, better definition of the role of stakeholders is essential.

Halting Deforestation and Forest Certification – What is the Macro-Impact of the Forest Stewardship Council?

Deforestation is threatening biodiversity and contributing to climate change. Halting deforestation is one of the key challenges for local and global governance. In recent years one can observe the emergence and proliferation of new governance mechanisms which aim to manage forests sustainably. One of these new mechanisms, which has received increasing attention in the literature, is certification by non-state actors. Certification implies, in this context, that forest management or timber products meet specified standards. In the context of timber and forest certification several certification initiatives have emerged of which the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is the most widely distributed and most credible initiative. This type of non-state market regulation of forests is by some authors regarded as one of the key mechanisms for global forest governance. Little empirical research has been conducted on the macro-impact of certification. The paper aims to make a contribution to this effort and focuses on the FSC as a specific case study. The paper analyzes two types of impact. On the one hand, the paper assesses the degree to which certification contributes to halting deforestation as a key component of sustainable forest management. On the other hand, the paper assesses the macro-impact of certification on governance since this is relevant in the context of Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (FLEG) and emerging global forest carbon schemes to halt deforestation and forest degradation (i.e. REDD), and refers to key principles outlined by the Forest Stewardship Council. The paper uses a dataset which contains originally collected data on FSC-certified forest surface area from nearly 1.000 forests worldwide and combines this with data from the FAO (forest coverage data), human development index and governance indicators in order to assess the potential and limits of forest certification as a governance tool to halt deforestation and develop sound (forest) governance. The paper shows that there is little impact on halting deforestation and that only a small proportion of forests worldwide is FSC certified. However, the paper does find significant variation in forest area certified between countries (especially in developed countries) pointing to the potential of forest certification. The paper further explores this finding by linking it to socio-economic development, ownership of forests and uses of forests. The paper finds a ‘stuck at the bottom’ problem which is related to the development levels of countries. Secondly the paper finds no direct impact on governance, as measured by the Worldbank Governance Indicators. The implication, both in term of opportunities and limitations are further discussed.

Recent developments of biofuels/bioenergy sustainability certification: A global overview

The objective of this paper is to provide a review on the latest developments on the main initiatives and approaches for the sustainability certification for biofuels and/or bioenergy. A large number of national and international initiatives lately experienced rapid development in the view of the biofuels and bioenergy targets announced in the European Union, United States and other countries worldwide. The main certification initiatives are analysed in detail, including certification schemes for crops used as feedstock for biofuels, the various initiatives in the European Union, United States and globally, to cover biofuels and/or biofuels production and use. Finally, the possible way forward for biofuel certification is discussed. Certification has the potential to influence positively direct environmental and social impact of bioenergy production. Key recommendations to ensure sustainability of biofuels/bioenergy through certification include the need of an international approach and further harmonisation, combined with additional measures for global monitoring and control. The effects of biofuels/bioenergy production on indirect land use change (ILUC) is still very uncertain; addressing the unwanted ILUC requires sustainable land use planning and adequate monitoring tools such as remote sensing, regardless of the end-use of the product.

Forest certification as a global environmental governance tool: What is the macro-effectiveness of the Forest Stewardship Council?

Sustainable forest management is a key challenge for local and global governance. The Forest Stewardship Council has emerged as one of the solutions to global forest deterioration and is generally regarded as the prime example of certification as a global governance tool. This article examines the macro-effectiveness of certification on halting deforestation and examines the relationship between certification and governance institutions. The article finds that the macro-effectiveness of certification on halting deforestation is still limited due to the “stuck at the bottom” problem of developing countries, which are kept out of the certification process, and the market-driven nature of certification initiatives. The article does not find a relationship between certification and governance institutions at the macro level. It does find, however, significant variation in certification uptake between countries, pointing to the potential of this policy tool. The implications of the results are discussed.

Articulation of environmental and socio‐economic externalities from bioenergy

PurposeBioenergy from agriculture is considered to be a way to reduce GHG emissions and thus global warming and climate change. Bioenergy also presents other environmental externalities as impacts on air, soil and water quality, biodiversity, etc. In addition, bioenergy presents socio‐economic externalities as impacts on human health, social wellbeing, local prosperity, etc. These externalities must be assessed in order to enhance responsible politics' choice of the best bioenergy routes to support through incentives as subsidies or quotas. The aim of this research project is to enhance the political choice of bioenergy routes to support through incentives as subsidies or quotas.Design/methodology/approachFrom the literature review and assessment of certification initiatives, the paper has derived a list of environmental externalities, i.e. environmental sustainability criteria, and a list of socio‐economic externalities, i.e. socio‐economic sustainability criteria, to be taken into account in bioenergy routes evaluation. Environmental and socio‐economic externalities selected are interlinked and cannot be assessed in isolation. They are thus articulated into a qualitative model, which defines links between externalities and characterizes them into positive or negative correlations, and indeterminate relations.FindingsFrom this model, it appears that many interactions between environmental externalities or between socio‐economic externalities from bioenergy are not straightforward. Many of them are time or space‐dependent. Agricultural practices vary from one region to another; indirect effects are far from being understood and assessed correctly, long‐term effects of climate change are still unknown, etc. Moreover, environmental externalities should be articulated together with socio‐economic externalities.Practical implicationsOn the basis of the consolidated qualitative model, a quantitative model will be built. It will enable the monetization of externalities and their introduction in a political decision‐making tool. This tool will help politics to compare different bioenergy routes and choose the best according to their sustainability.Originality/valueThe quantitative model should allow the monetization of externalities and their introduction in a political decision‐making tool. This instrument will help politics to take into account sustainability in their comparison of different bioenergy routes when they want to promote: employment, GHG emissions reduction, biodiversity conservation, etc.

The Collegiate Sports Chaplain: Kindred or Alien?

This paper examines the role and function of collegiate sport chaplains. Very little research has been done on this subject. To date there have been only two scholarly papers written on the subject.The core elements of the collegiate sport chaplains' work centers around encouraging; praying for spiritual guidance; responding to emergencies; being a liaison with hospitals, clinics or other institutions; and counseling. These key tasks are comparable to those of traditional chaplains. There are a minimal number of training and certification initiatives in place. Sport chaplains tend to affiliate with organizations such as the Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA) and Athletes in Action (AIA) and are less inclined to affiliate with traditional organizations such as the Association of Professional Chaplains (APC) or the American Association of Pastoral Counselors (AAPC).This paper presents data from one study on collegiate sport chaplains and explores opportunities to improve the quality of sport chaplaincy through affiliation with chaplaincy organizations such as APC, AAPC, embracing credentialing and collaborative training initiatives. Material presented also appeared in “Sport chaplaincy: Problems and promise,” Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics and is reprinted with the consent of JIIA. http://csrijiia.org/documents/puclications/researcharticles/2008/JIIA_2008_5_Waller_Publish.pdf

Opportunity and Challenge of Organic Certification System in Nepal

The demand for organic certification is gradually increasing in Nepal although it is in early stage. Organic certification is a written assurance given by an independent third party about the production methodology and quality of products to confirm special requirements. Certification brings opportunities for protection of local resources, better market access, improvement of worker and consumer health, and eventually enhancement of living conditions of rural communities. The demanding nature of regulatory requirements makes it difficult as well as expensive for local certification initiatives in developing markets to establish themselves to offer export certification. Certification cost, limited awareness of group certification, small and medium-sized farms and inadequate understanding of how organic certification works are some of the constraints for organic certification. Certification Alliance (Cert All), a regional collaboration in certification representing national and international organic certification bodies, addresses the aforementioned challenges. The alliance has recognized the value of collaborating instead of competing. Organic Certification Nepal (OCN), a part of Cert All, offers an internationally accredited inspection and certification service to local operators at a reasonable cost. This paper highlights certification process followed by OCN and potential challenges and opportunities it will likely face.Key words: Organic Agriculture; Standards; Inspection; Certification; HarmonizationThe Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol:10, Jun.2009 Page: 144-149

Les intentions des programmes de participation du public appliqués par l’industrie forestière : état de la situation au Québec

Public participation is acknowledged as a part of the decision-making process in forest management. However, industries and organizations related to forest management understand and implement “participation” in different ways, resulting in a variety of mechanisms used to involve citizens in the decision-making process. In this research, seven public involvement processes conducted within forest certification initiatives were analyzed using a scale of intentions. The results showed that each norm studied implied a specific intention with respect to public participation. These intentions also demonstrate that the forest industry still has some efforts to do in order to reach a real adaptive management. Key words: public participation, forest certification, stakeholders’ involvement, intentions

Regulating sustainability in the coffee sector: A comparative analysis of third-party environmental and social certification initiatives

Certification and labeling initiatives that seek to enhance environmental and social sustainability are growing rapidly. This article analyzes the expansion of these private regulatory efforts in the coffee sector. We compare the five major third-party certifications – the Organic, Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, Utz Kapeh, and Shade/Bird Friendly initiatives – outlining and contrasting their governance structures, environmental and social standards, and market positions. We argue that certifications that seek to raise ecological and social expectations are likely to be increasingly challenged by those that seek to simply uphold current standards. The vulnerability of these initiatives to market pressures highlights the need for private regulation to work in tandem with public regulation in enhancing social and environmental sustainability.

Activities Performed by Acute and Critical Care Advanced Practice Nurses: American Association of Critical-Care Nurses Study of Practice

Accreditation standards for certification programs require use of a testing mechanism that is job-related and based on the knowledge and skills needed to function in the discipline. To describe critical care advanced practice by revising descriptors to encompass the work of both acute care nurse practitioners and clinical nurse specialists and to explore differences in the practice of clinical nurse specialists and acute care nurse practitioners. A national task force of subject matter experts was appointed to create a comprehensive delineation of the work of critical care nurses. A survey was designed to collect validation data on 65 advanced practice activities, organized by the 8 nurse competencies of the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses Synergy Model for Patient Care, and an experience inventory. Activities were rated on how critical they were to optimizing patients' outcomes, how often they were performed, and toward which sphere of influence they were directed. How much time nurses devoted to specific care problems was analyzed. Frequency ratings were compared between clinical nurse specialists and acute care nurse practitioners. Both groups of nurses encountered all items on the experience inventory. Clinical nurse specialists were more experienced than acute care nurse practitioners. The largest difference was that clinical nurse specialists rated as more critical activities involving clinical judgment and clinical inquiry whereas acute care nurse practitioners focused primarily on clinical judgment. Certification initiatives should reflect differences between clinical nurse specialists and acute care nurse practitioners.

Sustainable Forestry in Sweden: The Effect of Competition Among Private Certification Schemes

Comparing the practice of two certification schemes in Swedish forestry, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and a forest owner-dominated competitor, the author explores the capacity of forest certification to ameliorate environmental degradation in forestry while attending to different stakeholder interests. Although the inclusiveness and stringency of the FSC might impede its ability to attend to industry needs, it has a greater capacity than the forest owner-dominated scheme to enhance environmental protection in forestry. Second, although competition for support and rule-making authority has resulted in convergence of the two schemes, the forest owner-dominated program has not adopted decision-making rules and structures to reduce the influence of forest owners in standard development and operation. Third, effective implementation of non-state forest governance schemes requires national forest law enforcement and well-functioning government administrations. This helps explain why forest certification initiatives have been more successful in Sweden and other developed countries than in developing countries.