Central Tanzania Research Articles

Struggle to improve quality of public secondary education in Tanzania

This study investigated the culture of maintenance and rehabilitation of furniture and infrastructure among the head of schools in public secondary schools in central Tanzania. The study investigated how leadership culture and political influences affect the culture of school maintenance. The investigation was broadened to include other factors that influence the culture of school maintenance. The study was cross-sectional. It involved qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data were randomly collected from seven districts of Dodoma region. The researcher used structured questionnaires to collect data from Heads of school. About 33 Heads of school were randomly obtained across the region. A descriptive research design was adopted in aligning up with the purposes of the study. The design is a fact-finding and interpretation of findings is valid. The design gives the flexibility of using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The findings in both approaches reveal that the culture of maintenance and rehabilitation is directly influenced by both leadership culture and politics. Descriptive analysis revealed that factors such as shortage of funds were the major factors that were reported in all schools regardless of their nature. The study also revealed a lack of training for school management teams and minimal involvement of the community. Repairing was revealed to be very expensive. Overcrowded classes, ignorance, and negligence of students were other findings. Qualitative analysis focused on the factors discussed in the descriptive analysis. Additionally, qualitative analysis reveals that leadership culture and politics have direct effects on the culture of school maintenance. The study recommends regular training to leaders and politicians at all levels in respective areas because these are in touch with the schools and the nature of community members. The recommendation also notes the importance of regular audit and site visits by administrators to each school. There should be established a mobile repairing and rehabilitation unit which will visit all schools to do undertake this work at affordable costs and timely. Lastly, there is a need to recheck the involvement of the community and micro-politicians in school maintenance and the proportions of capitation grants need to be rechecked to give flexibility on spending.

Determinants of viral load non-suppression among HIV-positive children and adolescents attending care and treatment clinics in Tabora region, Tanzania

BackgroundIn Africa, data on viral suppression among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive children and adolescents on antiretroviral (ART) are scarce. This study aimed to determine determinants of HIV viral load (VL) non-suppression among HIV-positive children and adolescents (< 20 years old) who attend care and treatment clinics (CTCs) in Tabora region from January 2018 to April 2022. Data were abstracted from CTCs’ database and patient records including socio-demographic, ART drug regimen, clinical, virological and immunological features, for a maximum of 52 months. Viral non-suppression was defined as plasma VL ≥ 1000 copies/mil after 6 months on ART, during the follow-up period. Cox proportional hazards regression model and hazard ratios (HRs) were used in estimating the determinants of viral non-suppression.ResultsA total of 378 HIV-positive children (0–9 years) and adolescents (10–19 years) were enrolled, of whom 124 (32.8%) had virological non-suppression. The overall rate of VL non-suppression was 1.38 (95% CI 1.15, 1.64) per 100 person-months of observation. After adjusting for other factors, determinants of viral non-suppression were poor ART adherence level at initiation of ART (HR = 3.3; 95% CI 2.16, 4.91), low CD4 count at ART initiation (HR = 1.66; 95% CI 1.20, 2.30), nevirapine (NVP)-based regimen (HR = 2.64; 95% CI 1.32, 5.26), efavirenz (EFV)-based regime (HR = 2.08; 95% CI 1.03, 4.18), lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r)-based regimen (HR = 2.21; 95% CI 1.13, 4.32) and being on second-line regimen (HR = 6.11; 95% CI 2.50, 14.96).ConclusionsHIV viral non-suppression among children and adolescents on ART in central Tanzania in the Tabora region is high (32.8%) and is associated with poor ART adherence level, low CD4 count, NVP-, EFV-, and LPV/r-based regimen. Early initiation of ART and intensified monitoring are required to improve viral suppression rates of HIV-infected children to attain the third goal of the UNAIDS 95-95-95.

Estimation of Groundwater Recharge in Makutupora Basin Located in a Semi-arid Region in Central Tanzania using Soil Moisture Balance (SMB) and Chloride Mass Balance (CMB) Techniques

ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to assess the groundwater recharge in the Makutupora basin, Central Tanzania using the soil moisture balance (SMB) and chloride mass balance (CMB) methods. The SMB method considered the estimation of both evapotranspiration in CROPWAT 8.0 software and surface runoff by the curve number (CN) method. The CN of the basin was determined based on hydrological soil group (HSG), antecedent moisture condition (AMC) and land use type using Arc GIS 10.2. Distributed land-use maps, slope and soil texture maps, daily climatological data (e.g., precipitation, temperature, wind speed, etc.), chloride concentration in rainfall and groundwater are the basic data used in this study. Input data were prepared in the form of digital maps using GIS and remote sensing tools and finally excel models were created to compute recharge using a set of given conditions. The results indicate that the average chloride concentration measured in the groundwater samples of the study area is 282.88 mg/L; much higher than the average concentration in rainwater samples which is 3.47mg/L while the average potential evapotranspiration is 2280 mm/year with an average rainfall of 680mm/year. Runoff computed using the CN method is ranging from 7.6-246mm/year or 0.68-22%. The final recharge from SMB is ranging from 0.025-117.86mm/year or 0.006-10% of annual rainfall equivalent to an average annual volume of 41.58Mm3 while recharge from CMB ranges from 2.57-44.6mm/year or 0.38-6.56% of annual rainfall equivalent to an average annual volume of 23.85Mm3. The results show that CMB underestimated the recharge compared to the SMB method. The reason for this is thought to be caused by the high chloride concentration analysed in groundwater compared to rainfall samples which may be caused by increased chloride concentration as water passes through the rock formations (unsaturated zone) to the saturated zone. Further lack of atmospheric chloride deposition data may be another contributing factor.

Ethnomedicinal survey of antidiarrheal plants of the Nyamwezi people of Nsenda ward in Urambo District, central western Tanzania

Background: Globally, diarrhoea is a primary public health concern associated with high mortality and morbidity. In Tanzania's rural areas, a paucity of contemporary health facilities and poverty have necessitated pursuing traditional remedies. However, the usage of traditional remedies is poorly documented. Therefore, this study aimed to document medicinal plants (MPs) used by traditional healers (THs) to treat diarrhoea in the Nsenda ward, Tanzania. Methods: A semi-structured questionnaire was used to gather ethnobotanical data from 21 THs on the use of MPs in treating diarrhoea in Nsenda ward. The purpose and significance of the study were communicated to THs, and their consent was requested before interviewing them. Results: Twenty-four MPs belonging to 17 families and 24 genera were recorded as antidiarrheal. Most reported MPs belong to Fabaceae (13%) family. Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke (0.76), Psidium guajava L. (0.66), and Coffea arabica L. (0.62) had the highest relative frequency of citation. Tree (67%) and root (46%) were the most utilised life form and plant part, respectively. The wild (79%) environment offered the most utilised plant materials. Decoction (37%) was the preferred preparation technique, and all the remedies were administered orally. About 21% of the preparations involved the addition of different ingredients and solvents, 13% were consumed freshly, and 56% involved dilution of remedies in water. Conclusion: The study has uncovered substantial numbers and knowledge of MPs used to treat diarrheal infections in the ward. The study recommends that scientific endorsement is needed to understand the pharmacological potentials of the recorded MPs. Keywords: Antidiarrheal, diarrhoea, ethnomedicine, medicinal plants, Tanzania, Urambo

Future pandemics and elections: lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic, Thana, Kenya and Tanzania

Pandemics and other health crises are predicted to become more common in the future. This is likely to pose a variety of threats to electoral integrity. This article argues that, by learning lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic, the negative impacts on elections of viral outbreaks and other emergencies can be mitigated in the future. It will begin by reviewing academic and grey literature on COVID-19 and elections, before presenting research findings from case study elections in Tanzania, Ghana, the Central African Republic, and Kenya. The article will highlight specific challenges facing low- and middle-income countries and argue that the protocols that were introduced in these case study countries ultimately failed to adequately ensure the safety of voters and election administrators by not addressing issues of compliance and enforcement. It will then present: 1) recommendations designed to be implemented in advance of future health crises, and 2) measures that should be taken once such emergencies are underway.

Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Asanje Iron Ore Deposit within the Mayamaya-Hombolo Belt, Dodoma Region, Central Tanzania

This paper presents the mineralogy and chemical composition including iron ore impurities to ascertain its suitability for industrial applications. The Asanje iron ore deposit is hosted in Precambrian volcano-sedimentary rocks in the Mayamaya-Hombolo Belt in Dodoma region, within the Lake Nyanza Superterrane. Iron ores are found in two parallel ridges trending NW-SE. Ridge I occurs as vein and banded hematite-type ore and Ridge II as massive-type ore. A total of 24 ore samples were analysed for major and trace elements by XRF and petrographic studies by optical microscopy and XRD. The XRD results revealed that hematite and goethite are the main components and quartz is the gangue mineral in the iron ores. The XRF data shows the Fe2O3t content ranges from 20.8 to 87.3 wt% with an average of 52.7 wt%. The average concentrations in wt% of impurities such as SiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 and S are 37.9, 0.9, 1.2, and 0.2, respectively. By comparison, Ridge II has greater iron content (30.5–87.3 = Avg. 64.66 wt% Fe2O3t) than Ridge I (20.8–78.22 = Avg. 48.68 wt% Fe2O3t). Based on the chemical composition, the quality of iron ore is categorised as low to medium grade, and can be used in metallurgical and cement industries.&#x0D; Keywords: Mineralogy, Geochemistry, Asanje Iron ore deposit, Mayamaya-Hombolo Belt, Tanzania

Consumer awareness and production practices of farmers on antimicrobial residues in chicken eggs and Chinese cabbage in Dodoma, Central Tanzania.

BackgroundAntimicrobial residues (ABs) in foods contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance, which is becoming a major public health concern around the world. Understanding food production practices concerning antimicrobial use and consumer awareness on the possibility of ABs in foods is necessary for developing mitigation strategies. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the production practices and awareness among eggs and Chinese cabbage consumers in Dodoma city.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted using a structured questionnaire and checklist to collect data on awareness and production practices from 420 consumers, 30 chicken egg farmers, and 30 Chinese cabbage farmers in eight city wards.FindingsAbout 42% of consumers of eggs and Chinese cabbages were not aware of the likelihood of antimicrobial residues in these foods. The awareness was significantly influenced by the consumer’s educational level (p = 0.001) and geographical location (p = 0.045), with educated and urban consumers being 7.7 and 1.6 times more informed than their uneducated and peri-urban counterparts. Furthermore, the majority of chicken farmers raised more layers than broilers, and they all used antimicrobial drugs, mainly tetracycline and its variants, to treat and prevent diseases. The findings also revealed that many vegetable producers utilized wastes from animals treated with antimicrobials as manure to amend the soil.ConclusionIn a view of the findings, a considerable number of egg and Chinese cabbage consumers in Dodoma city were unaware on the likelihood of antimicrobial residues in these foods from their production practices. All chicken farmers utilized antimicrobial drugs mainly tetracycline and its derivatives, for the treatment and prevention of diseases while vegetable producers used wastes from animals treated with antimicrobials as soil manure. Therefore, initiatives to inform farmers and consumers about the possibility of antimicrobial residues in these foods and their related public health risks upon long-term consumption are strongly advised.

Commercial motorcyclists and road safety measures compliance. A case study of Dodoma city, central Tanzania

ObjectiveRoad traffic accidents have been reported to contribute a greater proportion of deaths. Motorcyclists are among the high-risk group within road users to succumb to road traffic accidents. Road traffic accidents reflect the co-occurrence of multiple causes that involve road infrastructure, vehicle, and people. Understanding the level of compliance with road safety measures and their associated factors among commercial motorcyclists is important approach in the steps towards road traffic accident prevention. Study designA cross-sectional study of commercial motorcyclists from two districts in Dodoma region was conducted in 2020. MethodsMultistage sampling method was used to recruit motorcyclists from registered parking stations. At first stage, purposive sampling was used to select the two districts, while in the second stage simple random sampling by lottery method was employed in the selection of wards and parking stations. Descriptive and Chi-square test analyses determined the compliance level. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the associated factors. ResultsA total of 378 male commercial motorcyclists participated in the study. Majority (87.8%) were within the age range of 18–29 years. A significant proportion of participants (61.9%) had adequate knowledge and 59.5% showed positive attitude towards road safety measures. Only 39.7% reported to have good level of compliance with road safety measures. Married motorcyclists and those with good road safety practice regarding road safety measures were more likely to comply with road safety measures than their counterpart. ConclusionGood road safety practices and marital status were predictors of good compliance with road safety measures. Coordinated approaches, including continuing provision of road safety education and enforcement of road safety measures are needed to control the way motorcyclist behave on the road.

Prevalence and Predictors of Antibiotic Prescriptions at Primary Healthcare Facilities in the Dodoma Region, Central Tanzania: A Retrospective, Cross-Sectional Study.

Background: Accelerated by the misuse or overuse of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance remains a global public health threat. We report the prevalence and predictors of antibiotic prescriptions in primary healthcare facilities in Dodoma, Tanzania. Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study by medical records review was conducted in the Dodoma region, Central Tanzania. Results: In this study, children < 5 years accounted for over 45% (474/1021) of the patients consulted. The majority, 76.3% (779/1021), of consultations had an antibiotic prescribed; amoxicillin and cotrimoxazole were the most prescribed. Over 98% (766/779) of the antibiotics prescribed were on the National Essential Medicines List, but only 45% (429/779) of the antibiotic prescriptions adhered to the Standard Treatment Guidelines. The prescribing of antibiotics by clinical officers was almost 2.55 times higher than that among medical doctors (Odds Ratio (OR) = 2.546; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.359, 4.769; p = 0.0035). Patients with pneumonia and upper respiratory tract infection were 15.9 (OR = 15.928; 95% CI: 2.151, 17.973; p = 0.0067) and 2 (OR = 2.064; 95% CI: 1.184, 3.600; p = 0.0106) times more likely to be prescribed antibiotics, respectively. Conclusions: We, therefore, report high rates of antibiotic prescriptions, poor adherence to standard treatment guidelines and high levels of antibiotic prescribing practices among prescribers with a diploma in clinical medicine.

Unexpectedly high diversity of trypanosomes in small sub-Saharan mammals

The extremely species-rich genus Trypanosoma has recently been divided into 16 subgenera, most of which show fairly high host specificity, including the subgenus Herpetosoma parasitizing mainly rodents. Although most Herpetosoma spp. are highly host-specific, the best-known representative, Trypanosoma lewisi, has a cosmopolitan distribution and low host specificity. The present study investigates the general diversity of small mammal trypanosomes in East and Central Africa and the penetration of invasive T. lewisi into communities of native rodents. An extensive study of blood and tissue samples from Afrotropical micromammals (1528 rodents, 135 shrews, and five sengis belonging to 37 genera and 133 species) captured in the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia revealed 187 (11.2%) trypanosome-positive individuals. The prevalence of trypanosomes in host genera ranged from 2.1% in Aethomys to 37.1% in Lemniscomys. The only previously known trypanosome detected in our dataset was T. lewisi, newly found in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania in a wide range of native rodent hosts. Besides T. lewisi, 18S rRNA sequencing revealed 48 additional unique Herpetosoma genotypes representing at least 15 putative new species, which doubles the known sequence-based diversity of this subgenus, and approaches the true species richness in the study area. The other two genotypes represent two new species belonging to the subgenera Ornithotrypanum and Squamatrypanum. The trypanosomes of white-toothed shrews (Crocidura spp.) form a new phylogroup of Herpetosoma, unrelated to flagellates previously detected in insectivores. With 13 documented species, Ethiopia was the richest region for trypanosome diversity, which corresponds to the very diverse environments and generally high biodiversity of this country. We conclude that besides T. lewisi, the subgenus Herpetosoma is highly host-specific (e.g., species parasitizing the rodent genera Acomys and Gerbilliscus). Furthermore, several newly detected trypanosome species are specific to their endemic hosts, such as brush-furred mice (Lophuromys), dormice (Graphiurus), and white-toothed shrews (Crocidura).

Three spatially separate records confirm the presence of and provide a range extension for the giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea in Kenya

AbstractPangolins are some of the most overexploited but least studied mammals. The giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea is the largest of the eight pangolin species, measuring up to 180 cm in length and weighing up to 40 kg. It is a nocturnal, solitary species that occurs at low densities and little is known regarding its biology and ecology. It is distributed widely across the rainforests and forest savannah mosaics of equatorial Africa but its exact range extent is unknown. Apart from a single record in Kenya predating 1971, the eastern limit of its range was thought only to extend to central Uganda and western Tanzania. Here we present three spatially separate records confirming the presence of this species in Kenyan Afromontane forests. The three records are c. 120 km apart and c. 500 km east of the nearest confirmed giant pangolin population in Uganda. These records represent a significant range extension for the species and highlight the biodiversity and conservation importance of the Afromontane forests of western Kenya.

Is Beekeeping Commercially and Environmentally viable? an assessment of the adoption of hanging frame beehives in semi-Arid Area of central Tanzania

In Tanzania, beekeeping contributes to the natural ecosystem growth and livelihood of rural poor people. This activity provides income and ensures food security as generated from bee products. This paper explores adoption of hanging frame beehives and its implications for livelihoods and forest conservation in the Chemba district, Dodoma region. Data was collected through interviews and Focus group discussions using structured and unstructured questionnaires. Quantitative and qualitative information were analysed through a statistical package SPSS version 16 and content analysis. The research revealed that 37.9% of the beekeepers obtain an average income of above 50,000 (21.57 USD) Tshs per year from using hanging frame beehives and 36% of other beekeepers obtain less than 50,000 (21.57 USD) Tshs per year from using log beehives. The average income from beekeeping indicates that the communities are not yet receiving reasonable income to emphasise the activity as a main source of income. Furthermore, traditional beekeeping has remained a preferred technique, thus jeopardising the forest ecosystems around the areas. Implying that adoption of hanging frame beehives is still to ensure forest conservation. The study recommends that the government, in collaboration with private stakeholders, should plan to improve beekeeping by introducing improved beehives that can be affordable to rural communities and ensure forest conservation.

Market participation among smallholder farmers in Tanzania: determining the dimensionality and influence of psychological contracts

PurposeSmallholder farmers in Tanzania were investigated in this paper to determine the dimensions and influence of psychological contracts on smallholder farmers' decisions to participate in the market.Design/methodology/approachData were collected through structured questionnaires, of which a cross-sectional design was conducted in central Tanzania, the Dodoma region in which 467 smallholder farmers were surveyed. First, a preliminary Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted by involving psychological contracts and market participation items derived from previous studies. This was followed by the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to verify the items obtained in the EFA. The regression analysis was then performed to test the causal effects of psychological contracts on market participation among smallholder farmers.FindingsThe path analysis revealed that transactional, relational, and ideological contracts have a positive and statistically significant impact on the participation of smallholder farmers in the market. Therefore, smallholder farmers have own set of expectations for participating in the marketplace. As a result, smallholder farmers' relationships with market participation decisions can be strengthened.Research limitations/implicationsThis study covered only smallholder farmers. However, future studies can include large-scale farmers, because psychological contracts and market participation difficulties also apply to them. This may increase the generalizability of the findings.Originality/valuePast studies have not extensively covered the psychological contracts in smallholder farming, especially in market participation. Based on prior empirical and theoretical research from other disciplines, the findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of the psychological contract framework and the significance of multiple psychological obligations between smallholder farmers and market management.

Prevalence and predictors of self-medication with antibiotics in selected urban and rural districts of the Dodoma region, Central Tanzania: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAntibiotic resistance is a global health threat driven partly by self-medication with antibiotics (SMA). This study aims to assess the prevalence and predictors of SMA in selected rural and urban communities of the Dodoma region, Central Tanzania.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted in Chemba District Council (rural) and Dodoma City Council (urban) from August to November 2019 using multistage stratified random sampling. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using structured questionnaires.ResultsA total of 430 respondents were interviewed in Chemba District Council (rural) (161/430) and Dodoma City Council (urban) (269/430). The prevalence of SMA was 23.6% (38/161) among rural respondents and 23.4% (63/269) among urban respondents. The median amount of SMA in both settings was 2, while the maximum amounts were 4 and 5, respectively. SMA among rural and urban participants was associated mostly with perceived cough (76.3%/82%), body pain (71.1%/41.5%) and fever (63.2%/39.7%), and amoxicillin was the most commonly used antibiotic in both settings (47.3%/41%). Rural participants who reported a shorter perceived distance to a health care facility than to a drug outlet were 58.9% less likely to practise SMA (adjusted OR: 0.421; 95% CI: 0.388, 0.458; p < 0.001), whereas SMA decreased by 16.3% among urban participants who reported a shorter perceived distance to a health care facility than to a drug outlet (adjusted OR: 0.837; 95% CI: 0.755, 0.929; p < 0.001). SMA was 17.3% lower among farmers than among nonfarmers in the urban area (adjusted OR: 0.827; 95% CI: 0.716, 0.955; p = 0.01), while farming had no effect in the rural area.ConclusionsThe prevalence of SMA is similar among participants in rural and urban districts. In both localities, a shorter perceived distance to a drug outlet is an independent risk factor for SMA, while having health insurance reduces the risk. Equally weighted interventions to reduce SMA are required in rural and urban communities.

Neurocognitive decline as a major predictor of nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy among adults living with HIV in Dodoma region, central Tanzania.

BackgroundThe survival of people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome largely depends on good adherence to antiretroviral medications. Neuropsychiatric conditions such as major depressive disorders (MDDs) and neurocognitive disorders, in particular, are common in the HIV population and attributed to suboptimal adherence to antiretroviral treatment and overall poor clinical outcomes. This study aimed to determine the association between neurocognitive disorders and nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in the Dodoma region's adult population living with HIV.MethodsThe study was conducted in Dodoma Regional Referral Hospital using a cross‐sectional design to assess 397 participants through a systematic sampling approach. Montreal Cognitive Assessment was used to determine neurocognitive function, while the Simplified Medical Adherence Questionnaire was used to assess nonadherence to ART. Logistic regression analysis was computed to determine the association between cognitive decline and nonadherence to ART while controlling for sociodemographic and clinical confounders.ResultsOut of the 397 recruited participants, 266 (67.00%) and 41 (10.33%) met the criteria for neurocognitive decline and nonadherence to ART. Participants with cognitive impairment had a significantly poorer adherence rate than those without, even after controlling for confounders adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.183 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.031, 4.630, p = 0.0413). MDD was the only additional factor that remained significantly associated with ART nonadherence (aOR: 4.332, 95% CI: 1.634, 11.485, p = 0.0032).ConclusionNeurocognitive disorders are strong predictor of suboptimal adherence to ART; a comorbid neuropsychiatric condition such as MDD may further compromise the ART adherence rate leading to poor HIV care and poor clinical outcome. Further research with systematic and more robust studies in the field will provide a baseline to design and integrate appropriate care models to maximize ART adherence in HIV care. Integration of psychiatric services in HIV care can benefit the overall patient outcome.

Heavy metals and essential elements in table salt extracted from Bahi wetlands in Central Tanzania

Salt from Bahi wetlands is allegedly containing high concentrations of heavy metals since the wetlands are in the proximity of the prospective uranium mining sites. This means Bahi salt could be an important route through which salt consumers are exposed to high concentrations of heavy metals. This study has analysed 50 salt samples of Bahi salt in order to determine the concentrations of both heavy metals and essential elements using the Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (EDXRF). Analytical results show that apart from Na and Cl, Bahi salt is composed of several elements including heavy metals such as Cr, Cd, Pb, Th and U. The salt also contains essential elements such as Mg, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Zn and Br. The mean concentrations of Cr, Cd, Pb, Th and U ranged from 20 - 25μg/g, 3.8 – 8.85 μg/g, 2.29 – 5.8 μg/g, 6.22 – 15.8 μg/g and 6.5 – 9.12 μg/g respectively. All these toxic elements were in higher concentrations than the recommended maximum tolerable limits (MTL). Meanwhile the daily intake rate of essential elements due consumption of Bahi salt leads to the hazard index (HI) greater than 1 for children. This implies that unless purified, Bahi salt may be unsafe for children. Thus, both salt producers and responsible authorities at Bahi wetlands should collaborate to introduce suitable production methods ensuring effective salt purification before it reaches its consumers.

Gestational trophoblastic disease and associated factors among women experiencing first trimester pregnancy loss at a regional referral hospital in central Tanzania: a cross-sectional study.

Gestational trophoblastic diseases (GTDs) may follow any form of pregnancy or a pregnancy loss. Early detection of GTDs is important, as some benign forms of the disease may progress into a chemoresistant and metastatic disease. This study aimed at determining the frequency of GTDs among women experiencing first trimester pregnancy loss and the associated patients' characteristics. This was a cross-sectional study that included 200 conveniently sampled women who experienced first trimester pregnancy loss from January to December 2019 at a Regional Referral Hospital in central Tanzania. The specimen obtained from products of conception were collected, formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded and submitted for histopathological evaluation, for which haematoxylin and eosin stain was used. Data were analysed using SPSS version 23.0. The χ2 test was used to determine the association between categorical variables. p-Values ˂0.05 were considered statistically significant. Among 200 study participants, the overall frequency of GTDs was 42 (21%). Among those with GTDs, the most common histopathological diagnosis was partial hydatidiform mole (18 [42.9%]), followed by complete hydatidiform mole (17 [40.5%]) and choriocarcinoma (7 [16.5%]). In the studied participants, only increased human chorionic gonadotropin hormone levels were found to be statistically significantly associated with GTDs (p=0.000). Results from this study suggest that routine histopathological evaluation of the products of conception is recommended in order to allow early detection of GTDs, including choriocarcinoma, which usually carries a poor prognosis. The histopathological reporting of choriocarcinoma among first trimester products of conception from Tanzania is novel.

Stakeholders' engagement in the process of adapting to climate change impacts. A case of central Tanzania

PurposeIt is imperative to intensively engage stakeholders in the process of adapting to climate change impacts because stakeholders are important components in adaptation process and policy formulation. However, there is slight empirical evidence that has been established to indicate whether the stakeholders are significantly involved in developing various adaptations plans.Design/methodology/approachAs a way of bridging that gap, this study adopted both primary and secondary data and assumed various techniques. In-depth, semi-structured interview was the major approach and most interviews were conducted between June and August 2020. Here, 20 stakeholders were involved in this kind of participatory process. To make results more rigorous, the data from interviews were enriched with data from documentary reviews. Generally, the data were analyzed through theme content analysis.FindingsThe results exhibit that there has been little engagement of stakeholders in undertaking various researches especially in marginalized areas. In some instances, several stakeholders have been included; however, the most important ones have been excluded in the process, thus affecting the provision of data. The inconsistences affect the whole adaptation process and bring numerous controversies with the existing realities which recognize stakeholders as important entity in the adaptation process. Subsequently, this has widely affected even the set ups of decision-making organs and the policy formulation processes at large.Originality/valueExplicitly, the results of this study are essential to climate scientists and practitioners, as the results reveal the real situation in the field. Similarly, the results inform how various sustainable projects, plans and policies related to climate change adaptations can be developed. Conclusions are therefore drawn to strengthen sustainable adaptation to climate change impacts through increased stakeholder involvement.

Rock Art Recording and Documentation in Ikungi, Singida (Tanzania)

Although several research projects on rock art have been conducted in northern Tanzania, the Lake region and central Tanzania in the past, none of them has discovered cupule and gong features. Also, these early research undertakings did not document and interpret the rock engravings, cupules, hollows and gongs from the local people’s perspectives. This study sought to fill that gap through a fresh look at the rock art. It investigated and recorded ten sites in Singida region, and collected oral accounts from the local people. The fieldwork entailed systematic reconnaissance surveys which helped to discover and document more rock art sites that were not known by the scientific community as well as by the locals. Ethnographic inquiries were conducted to explore the varied meanings of the noted artistic features within the culture of the communities associated with them. Although the neighbouring Kondoa rock art sites are on the UNESCO World Heritage List, no single study has hitherto reported cupules and gongs rock engravings. Thus, this research is the first to report and discuss in detail the occurrence, types, and spread of rock paintings together with the engravings of the Singida region.

Editors' Note

The five articles included in issue of Tanzania Zamani vary widely in terms of themes, periodisation and geographical specificity. Three of them cover differing themes on the colonial and post-colonial history of Tanzania. Of the remaining two articles, one analyses the history of the topical phenomenon of oil politics in Nigeria. Although this article focusses exclusively on an area that is far removed geographically from the official cast of the Tanzania Zamani journal, the issues it explores are clearly relevant to the history of Africa in general, as further clarified below. The fifth article presents an aspect of the archaeology of rock art in central Tanzania. The editorial team considers this diversity of themes and geographical coverage to be a good opportunity for readers to gain access to a wide range of interesting historical issues within a single journal issue.