Central Settlements Research Articles

Multi-analytical approach and microstructural characterisation of glasses from the Celtic oppidum of Třísov, Czech Republic, second to first centuries BC

The Late Iron Age–La Tene period in Europe outside the Hellenistic world is characterised by specific glass products in the third to first centuries BC. Evidence of glass-working together with large collections of products (bracelets, ring-beads and other beads) have been reported from several central settlements (e.g. Němcice and Stare Hradisko in Moravia, Manching in Bavaria). These products were made from soda–lime natron-based glass. Raw glass was imported from the Mediterranean and used in local workshops to make personal ornaments. This paper presents a collection of the second- to first-century BC glass from the Celtic oppidum of Třisov in southern Bohemia, Czech Republic. Its archaeology and chemistry were studied in the context of contemporary glass-making and glass-working. The methods of scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectrometry and laser-ablation–induced coupled plasma–mass spectrometry were used for this purpose. All analysed samples of La Tene glass were found to be made of natron-based glass, comparable with glass produced in the Syro-Palestinian area. For the first time, different layers of body glass and inclusions were separately analysed in ring-beads. In yellow and also white opaque glasses, tin-based opacifiers and colourants were used. Besides typical La Tene ornaments made of natron-based glass, the analysed collection also contains three fragments of vessel made of much later wood-ash glass. As no evidence of glass-working is available from the Třisov oppidum, it is assumed that it functioned as a trading post or a distribution centre for glass products manufactured, e.g. at the Stradonice or Manching oppida. In this respect, the study provides new data on the production and distribution of La Tene glass in central Europe.

Fortified settlements of the Funnel Beaker-Baden phase in the western Little Poland

At the end of the fourth millennium BC, in the areas of the western Małopolska, existing Funnel Beaker culture structures south of the Szreniawa river has been disintegrated and replaced by the settlement of allochthonous Baden culture. North of the river, the development of the FBC still continued strongly influenced by the Baden culture leading to the specific form of the syncretic FB-BC. In this period only a few, but very extensive, central settlements surrounded by smaller sites remained active. The most important of them is located settlement Bronocice, dist. Pińczów, fortified in the youngest phase of use. Apart from the Bronocice, only e few other sites, surrounded by ditches, belong to this horizon. Three of them are recognized almost exclusively by non-invasive methods: in Gniazdowice dist. Proszowice, Muniaczkowice, dist. Proszowice,  and in Marchocice dist. Miechów. Another site is Miechów, dist. Loco was excavated.

Characterising the hierarchical structure of urban-rural system at county level using a method based on interconnection analysis

Integrated urban–rural development is important in rural vitalisation. Most publications have focused on the structural system of urban agglomerations but ignored urban–rural systems at the county level. To fill this research gap, a three-level construction method using network analysis is proposed for investigating the structure of the interconnection of rural and urban systems at the county level. Hierarchical systems among towns, between towns and villages as well as among rural settlements are recognised by the interconnection strength measured by multiple methods. The development strategy of each town is decided using cross discrimination based on its nodality and network centrality. The hierarchy between towns and villages is characterised by interconnection analysis between towns and villages and one village would be designated as the hinterland of the destination town with the highest frequency of commuting behaviour. The hierarchy among rural settlements is characterised by their interdependence using gravity model and the central settlements are identified according to the forms of settlement clusters with their respective three spatial patterns (i.e., single-centre, dual-core and linear). The city- and sub-centres of Daye, economic hinterland of each town and central settlements were identified to provide guidelines for the development of rural planning and vitalisation. Our case study demonstrates the potential of the proposed analysis framework for the guidance of the urban-rural system construction. However, further investigation and alternative data sources are needed to fully reflect the interactive intensity between towns and rural settlements.

A Study on the Network Structure and Characteristics of Dolmen Society

청동기시대 사회복합화의 진전은 정치경제의 기반이 되는 잉여를 안정적으로 확보하기 위한 수장층의 정치권력 확대전략과 관련된 것으로 이해하고 있다. 그런데 잉여의 수집과 관리가 취락 간 상호작용에 의해 이루어진다는 점을 감안하면, 취락네트워크의 구조적 특징이 사회복합화에 미친 영향에 대해서도 검토가 필요할 것이다. 본고에서는 이러한 인과관계를 살펴보기 위해 영산강중류역과 여수 반도 지석묘사회를 대상으로 사회 네트워크 분석(SNA, Social Network Analysis)을 실시하였다. 두 지석묘사회의 취락체계는 계층적 구조를 형성하였다고 알려져 있다. 이 경우, 최상위 중심취락은 취락 간 네트워크 조직 내에서 자원과 정보를 통제할 수 있는 권력을 가지고 하위취락에 강한 영향력을 행사할 수 있는 공간적 우위를 점하고 있었을 것으로 예상된다. 이러한 공간상의 차별적 지위는 취락 간 계층관계 형성과 사회복합도 진전의 배경이 되었을 것이다. 이와 같은 가설을 전제로 네트워크 중심성을 분석하였다. 그 결과, 영산강중류역 지석묘사회의 최상위 중심취락은 네트워크상에서 자원·정보 확보에 유리한 근접중심성과 변화에 따른 효과를 크게 거둘 수 있는 위세중심성, 중개자 역할을 보여 주는 매개중심성이 높은 구역에 위치하고 있었다. 이것은 최상위중심지가 지역네트워크상에서 잉여나 정보의 흐름을 효과 적으로 통제하고, 권력과 영향력을 행사할 수 있는 공간적 지위를 지니고 있었음을 의미한다. 이를 근거로, 영산강중류역에서는 네트워크 조직 내의 공간적 우위성이 계층적 취락구조의 형성과 사회복합화에 영향을 미쳤다고 볼 수 있다. 반면, 여수반도에서는 네트워크 중심성이 낮은 구역에 최상위 중심취락이 분포하고 있었으며, 각 중심취락을 핵으로 하는 국지적 단위들이 연계된 구조를 이루고 있었다. 이러한 분석결과는 단위지역의 지석묘사회가 각기 다른 네트워크 구조를 이루고 있었고, 이에 따른 사회복합화 양상도 달랐다는 것을 시사한다. 즉, 농업잉여를 기반으로 하는 영산 강중류역 수장사회는 네트워크상의 공간적 우위가 취락 간 계층관계 형성에 영향을 미치는 구조적 특징을 지니고 있었으며, 집단지향적 성향의 사회로 이해할 수 있다. 한편, 교역시 스템이 운용되었던 여수반도 지석묘사회는 국지적 단위가 독립적으로 연계된 네트워크 구조를 형성하고 있었으며, 개인지향적 성향의 사회로 상정된다.The discussion on the reorganization of economy system and the progress of social complexity due to the rice agriculture in Bronze Age has been dealt as the political power expansion strategy of the chief to secure surpluses. In this article, the effect of the spatial status of regional networks on the progress of social complexity considering the fact that the collection and the management of surplus are done by the interaction among settlements was explained. It was reviewed on a dolmen society in the mid-riparian area of Yeongsan River and the Yeosu peninsula, where the stratification in the regional level was discussed. Social network analysis, which is actively used in recent archaeology to visualize the centrality, the power and the influence in the network objectively, was applied. The analysis result shows that the highest class of the central settlement of the dolmen society in the mid-riparian area of Yeongsan River was distributed where closeness centrality which is advantageous on securing resources, information and the power, eigenvector centrality which can be influential on changes and betweenness centrality are high. This means that the highest central place can control the surplus, distribution and the information effectively in regional networks and has the spatial status which can show the power and the influence. Based on this, the spatial superiority in the network had an effect on the hierarchical settlement structure forming and the social complexity progress in the dolmen society in the mid-riparian area of Yeongsan River. On the other hand, the highest class of the central settlement in the Yeosu peninsula is distributed in areas where the network centrality is low. Regarding the central settlement as a point, local units constitutes the independent structure, this can be explained as rather the local interaction than the regional networks became the background of the social complexity in the dolmen society in the Yeosu peninsula. The analysis result shows that each of regional settlements in the dolmen society formed network structures and it influenced differently in the progress of social complexity of each settlement. That is, in the chiefdom based on the agricultural surplus, like that in the mid-riparian area of Yeongsan River, the interaction network in a regional level was ran and the complexity seemed progressed by controlling of the surplus using the spatial power in the network and the expansion of the group-oriented political power. Whereas, local units which have central settlements as cores form networking systems which links independently in societies which ran the trade system like those in the Yeosu peninsula, and it was considered that the individual-oriented social structure.

Changing of crop species and agricultural practices from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age in the Zhengluo region, China

An assemblage of charred plant remains from 17 sites in the Zhengluo region has been collected and analyzed with a semi-quantitative method representative index and also with a multivariate statistical method correspondence analysis for this article. It provides a useful perspective for the understanding of the changing in the crop spectrum and crop husbandry practices from ca. 2500 BC to 1046 BC in this region. In the Longshan period, rice was subdominant while more dry-resistant broomcorn millet was cultivated during the Xinzhai and Erlitou periods; however, the importance of rice rose again in the Erlitou period, especially stood out in some central settlements and wheat witnessed a remarkable increase in the Shang period. Combined with the ecological information from arable weeds, it might conclude that agricultural techniques played a much more important role in farming since the Bronze Age. It is possible that in the Bronze Age, elaborate irrigation system, fertilizer practice, and spikelet-form storage method guaranteed the stable production and the preservation of crops, especially rice in some of the central settlements.

Italy and China Sharing Best Practices on the Sustainable Development of Small Underground Settlements

Both Southern Italy and Central China feature historic rural settlements characterized by underground constructions with residential and service functions. Many of these areas are currently tackling economic, social and environmental problems, resulting in unemployment, disengagement, depopulation, marginalization or loss of cultural and biological diversity. Both in Europe and in China, policies for rural development address three core areas of intervention: agricultural competitiveness, environmental protection and the promotion of rural amenities through strengthening and diversifying the economic base of rural communities. The challenge is to create innovative pathways for regeneration based on raising awareness to inspire local rural communities to develop alternative actions to reduce poverty while preserving the unique aspects of their local environment and culture. In this view, cultural heritage can be a catalyst for the sustainable growth of the rural community. Through a series of projects on a national and international scale, the authors have addressed some of these problems by exchanging best practices in conservation, sustainable use and the enhancement of the underground heritage.

О находках человеческих костей на среднеазиатских поселениях середины I тысячелетия до н.э.

О находках человеческих костей на среднеазиатских поселениях середины I тысячелетия до н.э.

A Spatial-Territorial Reorganization Model of Rural Settlements Based on Graph Theory and Genetic Optimization

Rural China has experienced rapid urbanization and industrialization, accompanied with rural–urban migration since 1978. This tremendous transition has caused a series of negative consequences, necessitating a spatial-territorial reorganization of rural settlements. Previous studies on the restructuring of rural settlements are insufficient for inter-settlement connection consideration and practical and dynamic decision-making techniques. To overcome these concerns, a dynamic spatial-territorial reorganization model (SRM) of rural settlement is proposed herein based on graph theory and genetic algorithm (GA). The model involves two parts. In Part 1, consolidated settlements are identified according to the socio-economic network performance under four types of attack. In Part 2, GA model is repeatedly executed to scientifically resettle consolidated settlements into nearby townships or central settlements with objectives of suitability, compactness, and local connectivity under the control of the constraints. This paper presents an application of SRM to Chengui Town, Hubei Province. Empirical results suggest that: (1) removing settlements in order of node degree is the least efficient way to destroy the entire functional system; and (2) the proposed model can yield satisfactory solutions in terms of spatial reorganization of settlements. The SRM may also serve as a valuable reference for planners in devising plans and making decisions.

Ke struktuře epišňůrového osídlení v Hulíně a jeho okolí

Large rescue archaeological excavations in central and eastern Moravia have been yielding evidence of complete source materials of the Epi-corded Carpathian Cultural Complex (ECCC). In the Hulín region, the ECCC settlement reached remarkable density (one site per one km2), having been situated at a topographically convenient location in the flood plain of the left-bank Morava river. The settlement structure had two forms in the sense of alternating settlement and burial sites in no great distances from one another. The model seems to be that of small central settlements surrounded (within 500 m) by smaller satellite inhumation (family?) necropolises, and, within a visible distance, large, occasionally even long-term (gathering sites for a certain area) burial sites with individual small settlements (homesteads?). This concept could be completed with larger settlements which lacked remains of ground plans of above-ground structures; yet, no corresponding necropolises have been discovered. The causes and reasons for such a change in the settlement strategy, taking into consideration the significant level of unification of the ECCC society, needs to be found, yet.

Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016

This article presents central settlements in Slovenia and their main characteristics in 2016. We defined central settlements based on services of general interest and the population of an individual settlement, and developed the analysis further by using competitiveness indicators. We defined 360 central settlements at six levels of centrality, among which the significance of Ljubljana as a national center of international importance and the significance of intermunicipal, local, and rural centers are increasing. The significance of certain regional centers at the second and third levels of centrality is decreasing. The level of services of general interest supplied to Slovenian territory is relatively appropriate, but it should be improved by promoting competitiveness, especially in centers of national and regional importance.

Spatial Pattern Analysis of Rural Settlements in Connection with the Earthquake Vulnerability (Case Study: Central District of Marand County)

Spatial Pattern Analysis of Rural Settlements in Connection with the Earthquake Vulnerability (Case Study: Central District of Marand County)

Integrated management of karstic waters – A case study of the Zlatibor mountain massif, Serbia

<p>The Zlatibor mountain massif has significantly changed for the past 20 years due to the  development of tourism, which has resulted in an increase in water consumption and environmental threats. This area abounds in considerable surface and groundwater resources, which are not utilised adequately. Surface water characterized by lower quality and unstable regimes was utilised for water supply, while groundwater with better qualitative properties was utilised in a small percentage. A number of significant and gradually developing problems are the direct consequence of this concept of water resource utilisation. So far, water supply of central settlements has been based on the concept of the utilisation of surface water from the Zlatibor reservoir which was built in the year 1972, nowadays being filled up above the designed level, while the centralized water supply of other settlements has not been adequately solved generally. Previous research has indicated that this area is characterized by karstic groundwater reserves of regional character, and in most cases they are not adequately utilised, which has opened the possibility of their proper utilisation and the change to a new concept of water management in the area of Zlatibor.</p> <div> <p>A new concept of water management implies the utilisation of karstic water, primarily, to resolve the public water supply issue. In the future, a number of benefits such as: resolving of centralized water supply issues, reduction of surface water pollution, creating opportunities for the utilisation of surface water for other purposes, creating new tourist zones, reduction of environmental pollution, improvement of the general welfare of the population, etc., will be achieved by this concept. From the aforesaid, it can be concluded that a number of interconnected and integrated benefits will be gained by full implementation of the new concept of karst water utilisation. The application of the concept designed in this way, ultimately implies the establishment of an integrated management of all karst water in the area of Zlatibor. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary, primarily, to solve the problem of adequate public water supply by karstic groundwater, which implies the establishment of integrated karstic water management in this area, and that is the focus of this paper.</p> </div> <p> </p>

Analize vidljivosti u prapovijesnom krajoliku Velebita

U radu autorica razmatra značenje vidljivosti u prapovijesnom krajoliku na prostoru sjevernog i srednjeg Velebita. Posebna pozornost posvećena je lokalitetima koji se u literaturi navode kao središnja naselja zajednica (gradine Kuk u Senju, Gradina u Svetom Jurju i Drvišica u Karlobagu) i njihovim pozicijama u vizualnom krajoliku. Budući da je u dosadašnjoj literaturi istican strateški značaj ovih pozicija, autorica istražuje mogućnosti njihove vizualne kontrole krajolika i nadzora nad plovidbom, ekonomski iskoristivim površinama te nadzorom nad drugim lokalitetima.

Inovação em sistemas de produção de arroz orgânico no Rio Grande do Sul

The Rio Grande do Sul is the largest producer of rice. In the state, rice is conventionally produced in large areas with intensive use of machinery and inputs, which has been associated with environmental impacts. Innovation can help to change this reality. Some initiatives are being developed in recent years trying to adapt the conventional system the global trend of consumption concerned about the environment. An example is the production of organic rice. In this sense, has established itself as objective to identify the groups of organic production in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and the innovations associated with these groups. The research was characterized as qualitative. The current stage of research enabled us to identify the group of producers associated with the Center for Environmental Education and Rice Agroecological Management Group, coordinated the Cooperative Central Settlements of Rio Grande do Sul. Have been identified other producers or groups. As for innovations, the results of the group of producers associated with the Center for Environmental Education and Monitoring are under review. Still it was found that new more sustainable alternatives are being adopted by producers and that this type of cultivation has increased in recent seasons.

Mapping Evenki Land: The Study of Mobility Patterns in Eastern Siberia

In this article the Evenki way of moving is studied with an intention to reformulate the place of movement in modern hunter-gathering cultures. Firstly, the data collected during the fieldworks among two Evenki groups will be presented in a form of special maps carrying information not only about the routes but also various activities. Both groups are cut from each other by a mountain ridge and live in slightly different ecological and social environments, which have a contribution to the difference in their movements. With the one group of horse herders living on the frontier between steppe and taiga and the other group relying on reindeer herding and living deep in taiga, the consequen- tial differences in their mobility routes did not touch the basic patterns in the way their mobility is organized. The second part of the article is devoted to one of this shared basic pattern, the way the Evenki walk by foot. This part is devoted to a comparison between how this cultural practice is understood by Buryats, cattle breeding people, and our own interpretations based on fieldwork materials. The comparing of this two views of outsiders on the one of the most basic and routine practice will give the opportunity to study the relationship between a specific way of moving and hunting. The remained part of the article tracks the interrelations between such aspects of Evenki culture as ways of moving, the idea of self and territory organization. Hunter-gatherer communities are usually very mobile, the trips they conduct in a year could cover thousands of kilometers 1 . Modern hunter-gatherers even when sedentary manage to spend most of their time travelling, practicing hunt- ing and foraging in the vast surroundings of their villages and camps. Evenki hunters of East Siberia present a fine example of such a mobile ethos. During our fieldworks amongst two neighbouring Evenki groups we discovered that the everyday routines at camps and villages consist of packing and prepara- tions for various trips, in the direction of the central settlements or to the taiga, waiting for somebody and welcoming the returning people. Sometimes these trips took most of the family resources, increased petrol usage and were time consuming, bringing no obvious benefit to the families fortunes. Yet still the emotional reward of moving seemed to outweigh any material losses.

Chiefdoms and states in the Yuncheng Basin and the Chifeng region: A comparative analysis of settlement systems in North China

Regional settlement datasets for the Yuncheng Basin and the Chifeng region are re-analyzed for comparison so as to reconstruct differing patterns of community development at local and supra-local scales. A methodological implication of this reanalysis is that comparing settlement areas and surface artifact densities between projects requires special attention to how the data were recorded so as to put them on the same measurement scale. The analytical approaches originally taken to reconstructing community organization in the two regions, while differing in several respects, are shown to produce highly compatible results, permitting a comparison of the two trajectories with a sound empirical foundation. Neolithic settlement began much earlier in Chifeng, but rates of demographic and community growth were extremely slow. In Yuncheng, early village growth was much more dramatic. Multiple chiefly districts of modest size emerged in both regions, but those of Yuncheng, despite their shorter developmental trajectory, had substantially larger populations. Their central settlements, in particular, grew to be much larger than those in Chifeng and the special activities carried out at these centers differed between the two regions. A poorly understood, but not contemporaneous, demographic disruption punctuated both sequences. It was followed by the emergence of political integration on a much larger scale in the Yuncheng Basin, focused on a single settlement an order of magnitude larger than its predecessors. In Chifeng, regional population soared far beyond previous levels, but political integration remained persistently small in scale.

Optimal Foraging Patterns in the Sierra Nevada, Alta California

Western Mono acorn caches in the south-central Sierra Nevada are distributed in five km radii around central place winter settlements corresponding to predicted distributions, taking into account labor and travel costs associated with caching. Caches more than five km from winter settlements are distributed in a manner facilitating spring residential moves. These data indicate an efficient foraging and caching pattern geared towards maximizing storage capacity around winter settlements while at the same time fostering substantial seasonal group mobility. Because acorn caching was traditionally women's labor in Mono society, this situation clearly demonstrates that women's economic pursuits not only sustained Mono populations through the winter, but also facilitated seasonal residential moves essential to exploiting a patchy Sierran resource base. Because women's labor underwrote so much of the Mono economy, it also evinces a case where efficient women's foraging paid for ostensibly inefficient, status-seeking men's behaviors, such as trade and perhaps prestige hunting. This division of labor, and the differential prestige associated with men's versus women's pursuits, illustrates how attributes of sociocultural complexity can develop in relatively small foraging societies, ultimately suggesting that similar patterns may hold for the evolution of complex social systems throughout late prehistoric and contact period California.

A magyarországi városok versenyképességének vállalati megítélése

2004 év elején vette kezdetét az a reprezentatív kérdőíves kutatás, amely arra a kérdésre keresett választ, hogy milyen szempontokat részesít előnyben a magyar lakosság és vállalati szféra lakó-, illetve telephelyének megválasztásakor, melyik településeket és miért tartják versenyképesnek a magánszemélyek, illetve vállalatvezetők, melyek azok a központi települések, amelyeket valódi vonzásközpontolazak tartanak Magyarországon. A véleményünk szerint hiánypótló elemzés célja egy olyan értékelés biztosítása, amely a helyi döntéshozók számára hasznos információt jelenthet saját településük és térségük versenyképességének megítéléséhez, cmnak fokozásához

Gentrification in Istanbul

With changes in the political and economic world order as well as in the development of foreign commercial relations of Turkey, the country’s major cities entered a process of change during the 1980s, most notably in the location and use of some of the residential areas of Istanbul. While these areas of middle and high-income groups moved to the periphery of the city, the residences in the older and more central settlements have been frequently changing hands. Some buildings in the central areas of the city have been restored and are now used by people of upper social classes, income groups, cultures and lifestyles. This process is known as gentrification. In this study, the gentrification process and its effects on a number of different neighborhoods in Istanbul were investigated through a desk top study and the major developments in this process were highlighted in an attempt to understand how gentrification developed in a city like Istanbul, the capital of many empires in different eras of history, and home to many nationalities and cultures. This study acknowledges that political factors as well as the economic factors affect the location of the areas which are currently experiencing gentrification.

The Formation and Decline of White Russian Society in Kobe

More than two million Russian refugees resulted from the Russian Revolution in 1917. These refugees were termed (Hakkei-Roshiajin in Japanese) and did not accept the Soviet regime. For this reason, they escaped from their motherland and spread to many countries similar to a diaspora.The purpose of this paper is to discuss the way of life and the functions of White Russian society who chose Kobe, a former central city of White Russians living in Japan, as their domicile. This study is based on documents from the Diplomatic Record Office of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and oral data gained through fact-finding visits and interviews in the area.Most White Russians in Japan lived in Tokyo and Yokohama before the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923. However, a large number of them migrated from the Tokyo area to Kobe, which provided shelter from the disaster. Thereafter, Kobe became one of the central settlements of White Russians in Japan, along with the Tokyo metropolitan area. In those days, many White Russians, more than 400 people at its highest point, settled in Kobe, particularly in the former Fukiai and Ikuta wards.The term refers to all people from the territory of the Russian Empire, including Christians, Jews, and Muslim Tatars. Therefore, White Russians are a group that is diverse in terms of culture, ethnicity and religion. Consequently, their organizations were based on their religious affiliations in Kobe.In the period after 1925, White Russians were categorized as stateless in Japan. They had the right to obtain a Nansen Passport, issued by the League of Nations as identification cards, but their status was very uncertain. Moreover, many White Russians were peddlers and frequently travelled around. As a result, the Japanese authorities watched them closely as they were suspicious that White Russians were spies sent from foreign countries, especially from the Soviet Union. In fact, some White Russians were expelled from Japan in the 1920s. However, in the 1930s, chauvinistic nationalism arose among White Russians themselves, and some of them even provided donations to the Japanese government and army. This indicates that the White Russian society was subsumed within Japanese society in those days. In addition, there was some conflict over the attitude toward the Soviet Union in White Russian society.After W. W. II, the number of White Russians in Japan suddenly decreased. This is because many people went abroad in order to avoid chaos after the war. In Kobe, there was also a rapid decrease in the population of White Russians, and their organizations gradually declined and eventually dissolved. Today, only The Kobe Eastern Orthodox Church Assumption of the Blessed Virgin, The Kobe Muslim Mosque, and The Kobe Foreign Cemetery remain in Kobe as remnants of former White Russian society.These cases illustrate the disappearance of the ethnicity of White Russians in Kobe. There is a tendency for refugees to remigrate or for their families to disperse. Many White Russians were no exception, and this tendency is one of the reasons why White Russians disappeared from Kobe. In addition, the negative attitude of the Japanese state towards the inflow and settlement of foreigners is one of the major factors explaining their disappearance.