Central Nicaragua Research Articles

Resolving the identity and breeding habitats of cryptic dipteran cacao flower visitors in a neotropical cacao agroforestry system

Determining the main pollinators and the factors that control their abundance is a prerequisite for improving the production of many crops, including the globally important cash crop cacao (Theobroma cacao L.). Yet, the identity and the breeding habitats of cacao pollinators remain controversial since they are very difficult to identify morphologically due to their small size. It is known that tiny midges are involved in cacao pollination, but their diversity and ecology remain obscure. Here, we combined the collection of flower visitors, the use of emergence traps, and DNA barcoding to assess the diversity of dipteran cacao flower visitors and link them to five candidate breeding habitats in an agroforestry system in central Nicaragua. We detected 59 lineages of dipteran flower visitors, including Cecidomyiidae, Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, and Sciaridae, suggesting that dipteran cacao pollinator diversity may be much higher than previously assumed. Five lineages could be genetically traced back to specific breeding habitats. We conclude that the presented approach can be a promising tool to reliably delineate potential pollinator species and their breeding habitats, which can inform management strategies to promote cacao pollination.

Provenance affects the growth and mortality of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations cultivated in central Nicaragua

Teak has been planted extensively by smallholders in Central America within reforestation programmes and has become one of the most valuable timbers. The five-year growth and mortality of teak cultivated in a plantation in central Nicaragua, representing sites at the low limit of teak ecological valence, were evaluated. From 2006 to 2010, 72 pure teak stands were established, with 48.93 ha in total. For afforestation, planting stock from five provenances was used and planted at 1 m × 1 m spacing to stimulate the height growth and reduce broad crowns formed by self-pruning. In the pure teak stands, 144 permanent sample plots of 0.01 ha in size were established in 2011. From 2011 until 2015, the tree height and stem girth of all individuals in the studied sample plots were measured, and mortality based on the stand density was assessed. Significant differences between the provenances were observed. The highest growth was noted in the Local provenance originated from the studied area, whereas the Semilla provenance from Costa Rica, characterised by the lowest growth ability, was characterized by lower radial increment and mean tree height with high mortality.

The Deer and the Donkey: Indigenous Ritual and Survivance in Nicaragua’sEl Güegüense

This article argues for a decolonial response to elite understandings of the Nicaraguan folk playEl Güegüense, highlighting a reading of Indigenous survivance. It examines the work from a perspective that seeks to eliminate the colonial interpretations placed on it by elite writers, thinkers, and nation builders. Through a review of the literature on the play, associated cultural expressions, and personal experiences and understandings, this article evaluates the work as a product of Indigenous culture and mentality rather than a product of mestizaje or other colonial forces. An analysis of the play’s dialogue, imagery, and dances is coupled with an Indigenous Chorotega perspective that demonstrates the spiritual significance of the work, in a discussion that seeks to lift the voices of Indigenous peoples of Pacific, North, and Central Nicaragua.

THE VALLEY OF JUIGALPA, MAYALES RIVER SUBBASIN MICROREGION (CHONTALES, NICARAGUA) DATE LIST II

ABSTRACTThe material evidence of human presence in the Chontales region of central Nicaragua spans from 1420 ± 30 BP, or cal AD 554–670 (±2σ) through to the present, as was recently established (Donner and Geurds 2018). This cultural chronology, divided into three main periods, contrasts with the one previously proposed by (Gorin 1990), who defined six different phases from 500 BC through AD 1600. Here, we report on 11 new radiocarbon (14C) assays, introducing an update to the cultural sequence, consisting of two considerable changes, while also providing further overall strengthening. First, the earliest traces of human groups are now placed at 1645 ± 25 BP, or cal AD 263–536 (±2σ); second, five different periods are established for the research area. A recalibration of Gorin’s dates identified their consistency with the results reported here, supporting the new cultural chronology of central Nicaragua. Additionally, this study achieved the complete temporal characterization of Aguas Buenas, the largest pre-colonial archaeological site in Nicaragua.

Geochemical and petrographic assessment of clay outcrops and archaeological ceramics from the pre-hispanic site of Aguas Buenas (cal 400–1250 CE), Central Nicaragua

This research characterizes and reconstructs clay procurement and production practices through the integration of in-situ portable XRF and petrographic analysis on ancient ceramics and clay materials recovered from the Mayales river subbasin (central Nicaragua). A particular choice for this study was the largest and arguably most significant archaeological site in the area, Aguas Buenas (cal 400–1250 CE), a pre-Hispanic indigenous agglomeration consisting of 371 human-made mounds of various shapes arranged in geometric patterns. Microanalytical approaches were applied to reconstruct the use of raw mineral resources in the production of ubiquitous pottery materials found at this site and in its immediate surroundings. The resulting compositional analysis produced geochemical and mineralogical data allowing for the characterisation of distinct, geologically-based compositional groups throughout the valley, improving on the limited geological data resolution previously available. The integrated microscopic and compositional analysis (through p-XRF) of archaeological pottery materials and raw clay samples, generates a number of hypotheses and insights about the nature of the Aguas Buenas site, and its role as a shared space amongst groups living in the Mayales river Subbasin. Additionally, this study provides a solid research framework of investigation that can be employed for more detailed and extensive future studies on pre-Hispanic human occupation in this research area or elsewhere.

Uses of pre-Hispanic kitchenware from Central Nicaragua: implications for understanding botanical foodways

Archaeobotanical investigations in central Nicaragua are absent and preservation of organic remains is poor; therefore, we have applied starch analyses to samples from fragments of clay vessels excavated from layers dated to cal 1224 and 1391 CE at the Barillas site, Nicaragua. The approach to this dataset reveals the ways people interacted with edible plants in southern Central America. The scarcity of griddles recovered from ancient Nicaraguan archeological contexts has previously co-determined narratives on human mobility or cultural influence from the Mesoamerican culture area, due to the debatable presumption that this type of artifact necessarily entangles production and consumption of maize tortillas. In this article, we present results demonstrating evidence for the use of several starchy plants. The reconstructed culinary practices are vital for disentangling human–plant interrelationships and challenge earlier conceptions of ancient foodways in Central America. This research constitutes the first starch analysis in Nicaragua and the recovered plant remains belonging to manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz), chili pepper (Capsicum sp.), and maize (Zea mays L.) have provided empirical evidence of ancient foodways. Concomitantly, these results have invalidated the preconception that griddles were tools used exclusively for the production of maize tortillas.

\u201cRegardless, you are not the first woman\u201d: an illustrative case study of contextual risk factors impacting sexual and reproductive health and rights in Nicaragua

BackgroundRape, unintended pregnancy, and abortion are among the most controversial and stigmatized topics facing sexual and reproductive health researchers, advocates, and the public today. Over the past three decades, public health practicioners and human rights advocates have made great strides to advance our understanding of sexual and reproductive rights and how they should be protected. The overall aim of the study was to understand young women’s personal experiences of unintended pregnancy in the context of Nicaragua’s repressive legal and sociocultural landscape. Ten in-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted with women ages 16–23 in a city in North Central Nicaragua, from June to July 2014.Case presentationThis case study focuses on the story of a 19-year-old Nicaraguan woman who was raped, became pregnant, and almost died from complications resulting from an unsafe abortion. Her case, detailed under the pseudonym Ana Maria, presents unique challenges related to the fulfillment of sexual and reproductive rights due to the restrictive social norms related to sexual health, ubiquitous violence against women (VAW) and the total ban on abortion in Nicaragua. The case also provides a useful lens through which to examine individual sexual and reproductive health (SRH) experiences, particularly those of rape, unintended pregnancy, and unsafe abortion; this in-depth analysis identifies the contextual risk factors that contributed to Ana Maria’s experience.ConclusionsFar too many women experience their sexuality in the context of individual and structural violence. Ana Maria’s case provides several important lessons for the realization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in countries with restrictive legal policies and conservative cultural norms around sexuality. Ana Maria’s experience demonstrates that an individual’s health decisions are not made in isolation, free from the influence of social norms and national laws. We present an overview of the key risk and contextual factors that contributed to Ana Maria’s experience of violence, unintended pregnancy, and unsafe abortion.

Ceramic comales at the Barillas site (cal 1255–1390 CE), central Nicaragua: Defining a local technical tradition of griddle manufacture

In 2016, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University) excavated the Barillas site (cal 1255–1391 CE), where a ceramic assemblage including griddles, or comales, was recovered. In this paper, we will discuss the previously understudied occurrence of this vessel shape in ancient central Nicaragua, which has been traditionally considered as a proxy to argue in favor of Mesoamerican migrations. Through a stratigraphic and technological approach to ceramic analysis, this research aims to reconstruct the socially learned practices involved in pottery manufacture. Therefore, macro-fabric analysis and thin section petrography are employed for characterizing clay procurement and preparation practices, as well as firing techniques. Additionally, a macro-trace examination of the sherds revealed fashioning, finishing, surface treatment, and decoration techniques, which were integrated with a morphometric study. The combination of different analytical approaches identifies the production of griddles as local. As a result, the dichotomy between indigenous and exogenous blurs, and innovations in vessel shape might have entangled the interweaving of shared foodways through networked practices, but do not imply arrival or displacement of local populations at Barillas.

Reflexiones sobre los pueblos originarios del pacífico, centro y norte de Nicaragua

A lo largo y ancho de Nicaragua encontramos diferentes expresiones culturales de los pueblos originarios, quienes arduamente luchan por conservar sus bosques, sus tradiciones, formas de organización social, formas de hacer política y de maniobrar sus asuntos económicos y sociales en plena libertad. Pese a ello, los pueblos indígenas del centro norte de Nicaragua se encuentran en un complejo laberinto étnico, al asumir falsos positivos1 en relación a su origen histórico. Es decir, la construcción del discurso y de la identidad étnica en algunos pueblos del centro y norte, gira alrededor un falso positivo cultural denominada “chorotega2”, dicha aseveración tergiversa gran parte de la historia de los pueblos indígenas de las Segovia. En el presente ensayo, abordaré las tramas étnicas y políticas relacionadas a la identidad cultural de los pueblos indígenas del centro norte de Nicaragua, quienes asumen una identidad cultural que no concuerda con la historia, la lingüística y la antropología de la región. Dicho ensayo, tiene el propósito de reivindicar más allá, de las prácticas y tradiciones los asuntos de la auto identificación étnica, en las comunidades originarias de las Segovia. Para ello, retomé elementos de la antropología cultural y de la arqueología nacional, que permita dilucidar los orígenes y los procesos históricos de los pueblos en cuestión. Asimismo, la hipótesis que ubico en la antropología nacional tiene como base, debatir el discurso de los pueblos denominados “chorotega del centro y norte” a través de los registros primarios, los resultados de la arqueología en los últimos 20 años, en la región centro y norte. También, retomaremos losestudios lingüísticos de Alfonso Cónstenla en la región antes mencionada. Partiendo, de una corriente interdisciplinaria de la antropología del sur, que impulsa el reconocimiento de la identidad originaria de los pueblos, desde su origen étnico, historia en común, prácticas cotidianas y estructura sociocultural posmoderna existente en la región.

The Internet as a transnational project: connecting Central America through computer networks (1990–1996)

This article argues that transnational flows of knowledge, data, and technologies are not only an actual feature of the Internet, but rather a constitutive characteristic of its historical development. To make this case, it discusses how six countries in Central America-Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama-connected to and through computer networks and technologies such as UUCP, BITNET, and the Internet in the first half of the 1990s. Drawing on archival research and interviews with protagonists of networking initiatives, this article argues that the establishment of these projects in Central America required forging a transnational network of collaborations, enabled by international organisations with presence in countries of the region. This study reveals how the Internet was imagined and enacted in a part of the world largely absent in academic literature. It thus broadens our understanding of the early development of computer networks in the global South.

The Valley of Juigalpa, Mayales River Subbasin Microregion (Chontales, Nicaragua) Date List I

AbstractThe chronology of human presence in Chontales, central Nicaragua, was established by Franck Gorin (1989), who applied a combination of absolute dates and ceramic associations to build a sequence comprised of six different phases. However, interpretative and chronological issues have arisen due to two main problems. First, the sequence was based on stylistic associations to polychrome ceramics from Pacific Nicaragua. Second, the sample analyzed by Gorin shows contextual bias and lacks sufficient absolute dates. As a result, a comprehensive regional research plan was established to test the current accepted chronology, and redefine it where necessary. In this paper, we present the first date list for the Valley of Juigalpa, Mayales River subbasin (Chontales, Nicaragua). Contrary to Gorin’s proposal, which established a chronology from 500 BC through AD 1600, reports on new seventeen radiocarbon (14C) assays show a cultural sequence from 1420 ± 30 BP, or cal AD 595–660 (±2σ) through the present.

Alepia bifida, a new species of moth flies from Central America (Diptera: Psychodidae: Psychodinae)

A new species of moth flies, Alepia bifida sp. nov., is described and figured based on males, females and eggs. The type specimens were collected in central Nicaragua, Cerro Musún Mt. This new species is characterized by unique morphology of the wing, basiphallus, distiphallus and gonostyli. The genus Alepia Enderlein, 1937 is one of the most diverse genera of Neotropical Psychodinae (54 known species including the one described here), but it is so well characterized morphologically that no generic synonyms have been proposed.

Community aggregated traits disclose functional responses to seasonal resource fluctuations and spatial heterogeneity

Aim To investigate changes in community-level functional responses to rainfall seasonality in Neotropical grasslands through the analysis of community aggregated traits. Location Semi-natural grasslands in the Rio Grande de Matagalpa watershed, Nicaragua. Methods We measured 14 functional response traits that are indicators of plant resource-use strategies, across 32 herbaceous and four woody species in eight permanent plots: leaf size, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, leaf lifespan, foliar concentrations of P, N, Ca, K and Mg, plant height, lateral spread by clonal growth, root depth, start of flowering period and length of the period from flowering to seed shed. We calculated the community-weighted means (CWM) with trait values weighted by species cover for five different paddocks 11 times (between 2 Jul 2007 and 26 May 2008), and grouped them into four periods according to rainfall seasonality: early rainy season, late rainy season, early dry season and late dry season. Results Community aggregated values of specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, leaf lifespan, foliar concentrations of P, N, Ca, K and Mg, length of the period from flowering to seed shed, and to a lesser extent lateral spread by clonal growth responded to temporal variations in rainfall, and corresponded to a considerable extent to expectations based on plant resource-use strategies along resource supply gradients. Community aggregated values of specific leaf area and foliar nutrient concentration were higher in the rainy season than in the dry season, while we observed an opposite trend with leaf dry matter content and leaf lifespan. Conclusions Semi-natural grasslands of central Nicaragua experience shifts in plant trait dominance that correspond with changes in resource supply given by rainfall seasonality, indicating that the stabilizing function of net primary productivity found in earlier studies can in part be a consequence of temporal differentiation in functional responses.

The 10 April 2014 Nicaraguan Crustal Earthquake: Evidence of Complex Deformation of the Central American Volcanic Arc

On 10 April 2014, an Mw 6.1 earthquake struck central Nicaragua. The main event and the aftershocks were clearly recorded by the Nicaraguan national seismic network and other regional seismic stations. These crustal earthquakes were strongly felt in central Nicaragua but caused relatively little damage. This is in sharp contrast to the destructive effects of the 1972 earthquake in the capital city of Managua. The differences in damage stem from the fact that the 1972 earthquake occurred on a fault beneath the city; in contrast, the 2014 event lies offshore, under Lake Managua. The distribution of aftershocks of the 2014 event shows two clusters of seismic activity. In the northwestern part of Lake Managua, an alignment of aftershocks suggests a northwest to southeast striking fault, parallel to the volcanic arc. The source mechanism agrees with this right-lateral, strike-slip motion on a plane with the same orientation as the aftershock sequence. For an earthquake of this magnitude, seismic scaling relations between fault length and magnitude predict a sub-surface fault length of approximately 16 km. This length is in good agreement with the extent of the fault defined by the aftershock sequence. A second cluster of aftershocks beneath Apoyeque volcano occurred simultaneously, but spatially separated from the first. There is no clear alignment of the epicenters in this cluster. Nevertheless, the decay of the number of earthquakes beneath Apoyeque as a function of time shows the typical behavior of an aftershock sequence and not of a volcanic swarm. The northeast–southwest striking Tiscapa/Ciudad Jardin and Estadio faults that broke during the 1972 and 1931 Managua earthquakes are orthogonal to the fault where the 10 April earthquake occurred. These orthogonal faults in close geographic proximity show that Central Nicaragua is being deformed in a complex tectonic setting. The Nicaraguan forearc sliver, between the trench and the volcanic arc, moves to the northwest relative to the Caribbean plate at a rate of 14 mm/year. Part of the deformation is apparently accommodated by strain partitioning in the form of bookshelf faulting, on a system of orthogonal faults. The sinistral faults striking northeast–southwest rotate blocks of the Caribbean plate in a clockwise manner. The recent crustal earthquakes in central Nicaragua in 1931, 1972 and 2005 earthquakes took place on these left-lateral faults. The motion of the forearc sliver is also accommodated by a second set of right-lateral, strike-slip faults oriented parallel to the volcanic arc. Faults with this orientation and direction of motion are responsible for the 2014 and possibly the 1955 earthquakes. The presence of this geometry of orthogonal crustal faults highlights the seismic hazard posed by this complex faulting system, not only in the capital city of Managua, but also to the major Nicaraguan cities, which lie close to the volcanic arc.

Reclaiming the worker's property: control grabbing, farmworkers and the Las Tunas Accords in Nicaragua

In this paper I explore a land grabbing resistance movement composed of unemployed coffee workers in Central Nicaragua. Between 1996 and 2000, a private agro-export conglomerate appropriated worker-owned coffee estates previously designated as the Area Propiedad del Los Trabajadores (APT), or the Worker's Property. Following mass protests between 2001 and 2004, worker representatives from the Asociación de Trabajadores del Campo (ATC) and government officials negotiated and signed the Las Tunas Accords which provided redistributed land from 18 of those coffee estates to 2500 families. Drawing on interviews with movement participants carried out between 2003 and 2012, I argue that the roots of the control grab and the resistance movement can be traced to the contradictions of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN)-led agrarian reform in the 1980s, the conflicts over property in the post-war period and the failed consensus on how rural labor should organize and be represented in the face of land re-concentration and capitalist consolidation.

Assessment of stream geochemistry in west central Nicaragua during baseflow conditions

Water samples were collected from streams in west-central Nicaragua at the end of the dry season as part of a study of riverine solutes in volcanic terrains. Streams in volcanic watersheds had lower mean Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations (0.29mMCa2+; 0.13mMMg2+; 0.96mMCa2+ and 0.51mMMg2+) and slightly higher Ca:Mg molar ratios (2.1) than streams in marine carbonate rocks (1.89). Dissolved Si concentrations averaged 1.12mML−1 in the 15 streams sampled, indicating a very high degree of silicate mineral weathering. Younger rocks yielded higher concentrations. At least a portion of the weathering in some watersheds is by strong acids derived from volcanic input. Mean Si, Ca, and Mg concentrations (0.74, 0.39, and 1.12mM respectively) in these streams are higher than those measured in volcanic rock dominated watersheds in Panama and in first and second order streams flowing through basalts in Costa Rica. These differences reflect the lithologies and the ages of the rocks. N:P molar ratios vary from 6.4 to <1 in the Nicaraguan stream waters, suggesting these streams may be N-limited. In general, the highest phosphate concentrations were associated with lower Cl− values, implying that at least a portion of the P is derived from chemical weathering sources, although anthropogenic sources cannot be ruled out. The information presented herein represents some of the first data on small mountainous river systems in Nicaragua. The data provide information that may prove important for the understanding of the pre-Nicaragua canal conditions.

Reintroduction of the Scarlet Macaw (Ara Macao Cyanoptera) in the Tropical Rainforests of Palenque, Mexico: Project Design and First Year Progress

There are 17 extant species of macaws in the Neotropics, most of them found in South America. Two subspecies of scarlet macaw ( Ara macao) are distinguished in Mesoamerica: Ara macao cyanoptera, from Mexico to central Nicaragua, and Ara macao macao, from southern Nicaragua to South America. Habitat loss, hunting, and in particular illegal traffic have resulted in the local and regional extinction of this macaw within its historical range. In Mexico, the scarlet macaw has disappeared from about 98% of its indigenous range; it is extinct in El Salvador and occurs in very low numbers in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The IUCN recommends two tactics for population restoration: Reintroduction and Reinforcement. In this paper we report the design and first-year progress of a project to reintroduce the scarlet macaw ( A. macao cyanoptera) in the tropical rainforests of Palenque, Mexico, where this macaw has been extinct for more than 70 years. The project is spearheaded by Aluxes Ecopark Palenque, bringing together Xcaret Ecopark (as donor of captive-bred scarlet macaws) and the Institute of Biology of Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM; provider of the scientific platform for the project). The design of the project adheres to the IUCN/SSC guidelines for reintroductions. A soft-release protocol was developed as a major axis of the reintroduction of the scarlet macaw. This includes a preparation phase to enhance survival in the wild and a long-term post-release monitoring program. Broad social support was considered essential for the success of the project, and a program was implemented to include the local inhabitants as partners in this initiative. Between April 2013 and June 2014, we conducted six successful releases of a total of 92 macaws. Survival to August 2014 was 92%. The reintroduction of the scarlet macaw in the tropical rainforests of Palenque will restore a seed- and fruit-eating avian species with important consequences for ecosystem functions and processes, in a project that reconnects people with their natural heritage.

Soil organic C and nutrient contents under trees with different functional characteristics in seasonally dry tropical silvopastures

The selection of tree characteristics is critical for the outcome of the tree effects on soil fertility in silvopastoral pastures. This study aims to quantify the effects of trees on soil nutrient and C stocks, as well as assessing differences on the effects between legume (Albizia saman; Enterolobium cyclocarpum) and non-legume tree species (Tabebuia rosea; Guazuma ulmifolia). In Central Nicaragua, soil was sampled (0–10 cm deep) in paired plots, under both a canopy and in open grassland, in 12 sites per tree species and analysed for organic C, total N stocks, available P and extractable K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. To assess the effects of herbaceous composition and cattle to soil proprieties, we recorded the cover of plant groups and assessed the mass of dung in each plot. Soil organic C and N, available P and extractable K+ and Ca2+ were higher under the tree canopy than under paired open grassland. The basal area of trees was positively related with the canopy effect on soil variables, thus suggesting that the age or sizes of the trees are relevant factors associated with the content of soil C and nutrients. No specific effects related to the legume species group were detected. Our results indicate that in fertile seasonally dry subtropical pastures, scattered trees have an overall effect on soil fertility, and that the magnitude of the effect depends more on the tree characteristics (i.e. basal area, crown area) than on whether the species is a legume or not.

Regionalización biogeográfica de la mastofauna de los bosques tropicales perennifolios de Mesoamérica

Mesoamerica is a biologically complex zone that expands from Southern Mexico to extreme Northern Colombia. The biogeographical patterns and relationships of the mammalian fauna associated to the Mesoamerican Tropical Evergreen Forest (MTEF) are poorly understood, in spite of the wide distribution of this kind of habitat in the region. We compiled a complete georeferenced database of mammalian species distributed in the MTEF of specimens from museum collections and scientific literature. This database was used to create potential distribution maps through the use of environmental niche models (ENMs) by using the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-Set Production (GARP) using 22 climatic and topographic layers. Each map was used as a representation of the geographic distribution of the species and all available maps were summed to obtain general patterns of species richness in the region. Also, the maps were used to construct a presence-absence matrix in a grid of squares of 0.5 degrees of side, that was analyzed in a Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE), which resulted in a hypothesis of the biogeographic scheme in the region. We compiled a total of 41 527 records of 233 species of mammals associated to the MTEF. The maximum concentration of species richness (104-138 species) is located in the areas around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Northeastern Chiapas-Western Guatemala, Western Honduras, Central Nicaragua to Northwestern Costa Rica and Western Panama. The proposed regionalization indicates that mammalian faunas associated to these forests are composed of two main groups that are divided by the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca in: a) a Northern group that includes Sierra Madre of Chiapas-Guatemala and Yucatan Peninsula; and b) an austral group, that contains the Pacific slope of Chiapas towards the South including Central America. Some individual phylogenetic studies of mammal species in the region support the relationships between the areas of endemism proposed, which suggest a common biogeographical history. In spite that Mesoamerica is considered one of the most important hotspots for biological conservation, the poor knowledge of the biogeographic patterns, the scarcity of protected areas, and the high rate of habitat transformation due to human activities, make prioritary the development of conservation strategies that include patterns of species richness, endemism, and mammalian associations.

Prevalence of obesity, tobacco use, and alcohol consumption by socioeconomic status among six communities in Nicaragua

To describe the prevalence of noncommunicable disease (NCD) risk factors (overweight/obesity, tobacco smoking, and alcohol consumption) and identify correlations between these and sociodemographic characteristics in western and central Nicaragua. This was a cross-sectional study of 1 355 participants from six communities in Nicaragua conducted in September 2007-July 2009. Demographic and NCD risk-related health behavior information was collected from each individual, and their body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, diabetes status, and renal function were assessed. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate analyses, and (non-stratified and stratified) logistic regression models. Of the 1 355 study participants, 22.0% were obese and 55.1% were overweight/obese. Female sex, higher income, and increasing age were significantly associated with obesity. Among men, lifelong urban living correlated with obesity (Odds Ratio [OR] = 4.39, 1.18-16.31). Of the total participants, 31.3% reported ever smoking tobacco and 47.7% reported ever drinking alcohol. Both tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption were strikingly more common among men (OR = 13.0, 8.8-19.3 and 15.6, 10.7-22.6, respectively) and lifelong urban residents (OR = 2.42, 1.31-4.47 and 4.10, 2.33-7.21, respectively). There was a high prevalence of obesity/overweight across all income levels. Women were much more likely to be obese, but men had higher rates of tobacco and alcohol use. The rising prevalence of NCD risk factors among even the poorest subjects suggests that an epidemiologic transition in underway in western and central Nicaragua whereby NCD prevalence is shifting to all segments of society. Raising awareness that health clinics can be used for chronic conditions needs to be priority.