Central Government Organizations Research Articles

Classroom implementation of national sexuality education curricula in four low- and middle-income countries

ABSTRACT School-based comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) can help adolescents acquire crucial knowledge and skills to achieve their full potential, particularly in low- and middle-income countries with higher rates of negative sexual and reproductive outcomes. While many low- and middle-income countries have developed CSE curricula, little is known about how these are implemented in the classroom. This multi-country mixed-methods study analysed challenges to the implementation of national CSE curricula in schools in Ghana, Kenya, Peru and Guatemala, based on surveys of secondary school principals, teachers and students aged 15–17 years, and in-depth interviews with central and local government, NGOs and youth organisations. In all four countries, inadequate teacher training remained a major hurdle to effective implementation, manifesting in teacher discomfort and inaccurate messaging. This was compounded by a lack of comprehensive teaching resources. CSE classes were focused mainly on biology at the expense of contraception, gender and rights, despite students’ desire for greater coverage of these topics. Teaching methods lacked interactive activities necessary to develop skills and values. Findings offer useful lessons to improve school-level implementation in these and other countries facing similar challenges. Increasing teacher training and distributing comprehensive CSE materials responsive to adolescents’ needs remain priorities in all countries.

IoT Based Vehicle Mounted Weight Sensors

The as most of the goods trucks in the developing nation are overloaded with goods, and this needs to be controlled via smart way. This can be achieved using the Smart Sensors and Internet of Things (IoT), as these are the emerging technologies. In these paper we propose the weight mounted sensors can dynamical give an accurate inputs about weight variation, the advantage of this system is that any extra goods or loads cannot be added while movement of the trucks, if any extra goods are been added then it can be alerted nonstop to the government agencies on the real-time or the weight on the trucks can be monitored by the central government organization. This paper will provide an integration of smart sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT) and Block Chain integration together on one platform, we propose in this paper using the block chain technology to encrypt the real-time data to the government database and this data is securely transferred or encapsulated in the block chain as block, these data cannot be modified by the cyber attacker.

การวิเคราะห์รางวัลธรรมาภิบาลของประเทศไทย (Analysis of Good Governance Awards in Thailand)

Thai Abstract: การศกษาวจยเรองการวเคราะหรางวลธรรมาภบาลในประเทศไทย มวตถประสงคเพอส ารวจขอมลรางวล ธรรมาภบาลของประเทศไทย และวเคราะหรางวลธรรมาภบาลในประเทศไทย การวจยครงนเปนการวจยเอกสาร วเคราะหขอมลโดยการตความและใชสถตพนฐาน ไดแก คาความถ คารอยละ ผลการศกษาพบวา องคกรทมอบรางวลธรรมาภบาลในประเทศไทยระหวาง พ.ศ.2551-2560 นน ประกอบดวยองคกรจ านวน 4 ประเภท รวมจ านวนทงสน 13องคกร องคกรซงมจ านวนมากทสด 3 ล าดบแรกไดแก 1) องคกรภาครฐประเภทสวนกลางและสวนภมภาค มจ านวน 6 องคกร คดเปนรอยละ 46.16 2) องคกรรปแบบผสม มจ านวน 4 องคกร คดเปนรอยละ 30.77 และ 3)องคกรระหวางประเทศ มจ านวน 2 องคกร คดเปนรอยละ 15.38 รางวลธรรมาภบาลในประเทศไทย จ าแนกตามประเภทผรบรางวลธรรมาภบาลระหวาง พ.ศ.2551-2560 นน ประกอบดวยผรบรางวลธรรมาภบาลจ านวน 6ประเภท รวม 4,456 องคกร และปจ เจกบคคล จานวน 90 คน รวมจ านวนผรบรางวลธรรมาภบาลทงสน 4,546องคกรและปจ เจกบคคล โดยประเภทของผรบรางวลธรรมาภบาลในประเทศไทยซงมจ านวนมากทสด 3 ล าดบแรกไดแก 1) องคกรภาคเอกชนประเภทธรกจ มจ านวน 1,804 องคกร คดเปนรอยละ 39.69 2) องคกรภาครฐประเภทองคการปกครองสวนทองถน มจ านวน 1,700 องคกร คดเปนรอยละ 37.40 และ 3) องคกรภาครฐประเภทสวนกลางและสวนภมภาค จ านวน 872 องคกร คดเปน รอยละ 19.18 English Abstract: This documentary research on good governance awards analysis in Thailand aimed to explore the data on good governance of Thailand and analyze good governance awards in Thailand. Data analysis was based on basic statistics such as frequency and percentage. The study indicated that the organization that awarded the good governance awards in Thailand during the year 2008-2017, consisting of 4 types of organizations, totaling 13 organizations. There are 3 types of organizations, which are 1) government organizations, central and regional organizations, with 6 organizations, representing 46.16 percent 2) mixed form organizations, with 4 organizations representing 30.77 percent and 3) international organizations with 2 organizations, representing 15.38 percent, respectively. Good governance awards in Thailand classified by category of recipients of good governance awards in Thailand during 2008-2017, consisting of 6 recipient category of good governance awards, a total of 4,456 organizations and 90 individuals, including the total number of good governance award recipients 4,546 organizations and individuals. By the type of award recipients of good governance in Thailand, which has the highest number of the first three, namely 1) the private sector, business type, with 1,804 organizations, accounting for 39.69 percent 2) government organizations, types of local government organizations, there are 1,700 organizations 37.40 percent and 3) 872 public and central government organizations, representing 19.18 percent.

THE NPFM IN EMERGING ECONOMIES: THE MODIFIED BUDGETING SYSTEM (MBS) IN MALAYSIAN GOVERNMENT

This study examines the impact of the MBS on overall financial management in the Malaysian central government organisations. This study adopted cross sectional survey with two main stages of data collection - questionnaire and interview surveys. Providing evidence on the applicability of NPFM in developing countries, generally the respondents agreed that the MBS had improved financial management processes of their organisations by virtue of Expenditure Target, greater autonomy to operational managers and result based performance measures. However, structural weaknesses related to annuality and resistance to change by managers might undermine the reforms. Problems including shortfall of allocations and delays in receiving funds at responsibility centres should be addressed by the government. More importantly, this study provides evidence about the effectiveness of the NPFM mechanisms, which has its western origin, to civil service organisations in emerging economies.Keywords : New Public Financial Management (NPFM), Modified Budgeting System (MBS), Evaluation, Emerging Economies, Malaysia, Financial Management

사회적경제 조직의 지속가능성과 협력 네트워크 조직의 관계 : 중앙정부, 지자체, 시민사회단체를 중심으로

본 연구는 사회적경제 조직 외부와의 협력 네트워크에 초점을 맞추어 사회적경제 조직의 지속가능성의 조건을 분석하였다. 특히, 중앙정부, 기 초지자체, 시민사회단체 가운데 어떤 조직과의 협력 관계가 사회적경제 조직의 지속가능성에 유의미한 영향을 미치는가를 탐색하였다. 이를 위해 기존의 목표달성 중심의 성과모델 지속가능성 개념을 탈피하여, 관계성 중심의 역량강화모델 지속가능성 개념화와 조작적 정의를 시도했다. 이를 바탕으로 사회적경제 조직을 면접 조사한 자료를 활용하여 사회적경제 조직의 지속가능성에 영향을 미치는 외부 협력 조직의 역할을 경험적으 로 분석했다. 분석결과, 첫째, 지역 시민사회단체와의 협력은 사회적경제 조직의 지 속가능성을 더욱 강화한다는 사실을 확인하였다. 둘째, 지자체와 협력이 적극적일수록 사회적경제 조직이 지속할 가능성도 높아지는 것으로 나타 났다. 셋째, 중앙정부와의 협력은 사회적경제 조직의 지속가능성에 유의 미한 영향을 미치는 못하는 것으로 분석되었다. 본 연구는 기존 연구와 비교해서, 특히 시민사회단체와의 네트워크 협력이 사회적경제 조직의 지속가능성을 강화시켜준다는 새로운 사실을 밝혀냈다는 의의가 있다. 결론 적으로 본 연구를 통해 사회적경제 생태계의 협력 네트워크 구조가 사회 적경제 조직의 지속가능한 역량강화에 유의미한 영향을 미친다는 사실도 확인할 수 있다. 사회적경제 조직은 지속가능한 발전을 위해서 지역 시민 사회조직과 지자체와의 연대와 협력을 강화하는 실천에 주력할 필요가 있다.

Differences of perception between private and public officers in an organizing committee concerning stakeholders of an international sporting event

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the perception of public and private officers of stakeholder at the PyeongChang Winter Olympic Games 2018. This event was selected as the subject of this research as it is the most recent mega-scale international sporting event and, given that the organizing committee (OC) is currently operating, it afforded a unique opportunity to investigate the staff of the organization. To clarify the research questions, this research identified stakeholders of Olympic Games.Design/methodology/approachThe research questions were examined by a stakeholder analysis that measured and compared perceptions conducted according to the stakeholder theory (Freeman, 2010) and previous research (Naraine et al., 2016).FindingsThis study identifies eight stakeholders of the 2018 Winter Olympic Games: the OC, the International Olympics Committee, National Olympic Committee, central government, local government, media, sponsors and non-government organizations. The authors pointed out that public officers are more sensitive to the opinions and movements of community members than private staff. Conversely, the authors found that the private staffs regard the media and influential stakeholders as more important compared with public officers.Originality/valueBased on the findings from the Olympics committee, this study contributes to the academic literature related to sporting events and their stakeholders by providing the most up-to-date identification of stakeholders.

Gestión de Riesgos (Sendai) y Objetivos Desarrollo Sostenible en Puerto Plata

Este artículo trata sobre los desastres recurrentes del Municipio de San Felipe de Puerto Plata y cómo el Acuerdo Marco para la Reducción de Desastres 2015-2030 de Sendai, junto a los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS), se interrelacionan y de cómo pueden ser utilizados para la Gestión de riesgos ante desastres. En él se muestran trabajos previos sobre gestión de riesgos de desastres realizados en este territorio. Esto es importante porque parece que no han sido comprendidos en toda su extensión por las autoridades y las comunidades. Prueba de ello son los efectos negativos, repetitivos, de amenazas naturales y antrópicas convertidas en realidad como ocurrió con las pérdidas ocurridas durante las lluvias de los meses de octubre y noviembre de 2016, las vaguadas de inicio del año 2017 y las ocasionadas durante el paso por las cercanías de República Dominicana de los huracanes Irma y María en el mes de septiembre de 2017. Los hallazgos encontrados mostraron que existe insuficiencia de entendimiento y sensibilidad de parte de los actores claves del Municipio de San Felipe de Puerto Plata al trabajo coordinado de la gestión de riesgos a desastres naturales y antrópicos. Se recomienda desarrollar proyectos a nivel local, del gobierno central y organismos internacionales tomando en cuenta el Marco de Sendai y los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) y la Estrategia Nacional de Desarrollo, de manera que los trabajos, además de aumentar la sostenibilidad ambiental, logren el futuro que queremos, aumente la resiliencia y se reflejen en los indicadores de ODS y las metas e indicadores del Marco de Sendai.

Youth Work in Turkey: A Sector Newly Emerging and Marked by Political Competition

Youth work is a very recent field in Turkey and the evolution of the field has been very much influenced by the European institutions, especially with the European Union candidacy process of Turkey. Youth work in Turkey can be analyzed in three different layers since the central government, local government (municipalities) and civil society organization all have youth work activities. During our Horizon 2020 PARTISPACE research project, we conducted ethnographic research to shed light on the local characteristics of youth work in a central Anatolian city in Turkey. The cases we discuss in the scope of this paper based on our ethnographic research includes two youth centers, one run by a central government agency, the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the other by a local municipality run by the party of opposition. The study reveals the influence of local dynamics and political competition in the development of youth policy and youth work. Our research demonstrates that, even if youth work is not a priority in the public policy agenda, it has become an object of political competition in Turkey.

A Study on Multicultural Village Special Zones and Regional Development : Focused on Wongok-dong Case in Ansan-si

이 연구에서는 경기도 안산시 다문화마을 특구지역인 원곡동 사례를 토대로 중앙정부와 지방정부 그리고 공공기관과 민간단체 간의 협력 활동을 통한 지역발전효과를 분석하였다. 그 결과 다문화 마을 특구지역인 원곡동은 정치적 변화와 경제적 변화 그리고 사회적 통합을 통해 지역발전 효과를 이끌어내고 있었다. 첫째, 정치적으로 2002년 1월 ‘원곡동 주민 자치위원회’가 중심이 되어 ‘국경없는 마을’을만들었다. 또한 2001년 법무부 출입국관리사무소가 원곡동 일대 불법체류단속을할 때에도 지역주민들이 자발적으로 단속중단 서명운동을 전개함으로써 지역공동체형성운동이 일어났다. 둘째, 경제적으로는 안산시에 있는 중소업체에 외국인근로자들을 고용해 지역생산과 경제효과를 가져왔다. 또한 다문화마을 특구라는 장소마케팅을 활용해 지역발전을 가져왔다. 셋째, 지역주민과 공동체가 나서서 다양한 포럼 및 축제 등을 통해 내국인과 외국이주민의 이질감을 줄이고 사회통합을 이끌어내고 있었다.This study analyzed the effects of regional development through cooperation activities between central government, local government, public institutions and private organizations based on the example of Wongok-dong, which a multicultural Village Special Zones in Ansan-si, Gyeonggi-do. As a result, Wongok-dong, a multicultural Village Special Zones, was leading the effect of regional development through political change, economic change and social integration. First, the Wongok-dong residents autonomous committee created a village without borders in January 2002. when the Immigration Office of the Ministry of Justice cracked down on illegal stay in Wongok-dong, the local residents voluntarily started a crackdown campaign to stop the crackdown in 2001. Second, Economically, foreign workers who have been hired by small and medium-sized companies in Ansan-si bring to local production and economic benefits. In addition, it has brought about regional development by utilizing the place marketing called multicultural village special Zones. Third, Local residents and communities reduced the Heterogeneity of domestic and foreign migrants through diverse forums and festivals and bring about social integration.

Stakeholder Participation in REDD+ Readiness Activities for Three Collaborative Projects in Lao PDR

A key challenge for reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries is to balance the power of various stakeholders in decision making. This study explores the forms of stakeholder participation in the implementation of three pilot projects in Laos, with a focus on who actually makes decisions on project activities. We found that stakeholder roles in making decisions were imbalanced. The central government and development partner organizations were the ones who actually fulfill the roles of decision-makers in most project activities. Although local communities were not the key stakeholders in decision making in most activities, their roles seem to have increased in the activities where participatory approaches were applied. Participation of the private sector, non-governmental organizations, academic and research institutes and mass organizations was limited. Opportunities to reach decision-makers regarding project activities came through service contract agreements. Our findings suggest that an understanding of who fulfills the key roles will support a decentralization of decision making by balancing power and redistributing the roles from dominant to weaker stakeholders. In addition, the private sector’s participation may enhance opportunities to harmonize their investments for supporting REDD+ development and reduce the negative impacts on the forests and the environment.

Safety in a Manufacturing Company

Abstract The safety systems include the functioning of the institutions of a state, central, and local government, businesses, and social organizations. Research in this discipline should contribute to the development of the theoretical foundations and systems of national and international security and operating systems in the area of technical safety. Technical safety engineering should deal with a design, build, operation, and decommissioning of technical measures in order to minimize the opportunities and the size of their negative impact on the environment, people, and the good of civilization. With this in mind, the main purpose of the research was to evaluate the safety of technical manufacturing company that uses a wide machine park. A plant manufacturing parts and components for automobiles was the audited company.

ON THE BUREAUCRACY OF BUREAUCRACIES: ANALYSING THE SIZE AND ORGANIZATION OF OVERHEAD IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS

AbstractGovernments across the globe try to rebalance their budgets by rationalizing overhead operations. When overhead‐reducing policies are adopted, it is important to understand why some central government organizations have a higher overhead than others, and why organizational models to produce overhead efficiencies are used to different degrees. This study focuses on the Flemish context to analyse differences between central government organizations in the size and organization of two overhead processes: human resources management (HRM) and finance and control (FIN). Significant effects are found for autonomy, organizational size, spatial dispersion and budgetary stress, yet effects vary according to whether HRM or FIN is considered and whether the focus is on the size or the organization of HRM or FIN. Our findings have practical implications to get a process‐sensitive understanding of the size and organization of overhead, and theoretical implications as they cast light on factors that shape decision‐making in public organizations.

Scale for Measuring Transformational Leadership in Public Sector Organizations in Sri Lanka: With Special Reference to Ministries of Western Provincial Council

The most accepted Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is heavily applied to measure the transformational leadership in private sector and central government organizations than provincial council organizations in Sri Lanka. Thus this paper describes the development of a 21 item instrument for assessing transformational leadership in provincial council organizations in Sri Lanka with special reference to the western provincial council. To do so, both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied in three fundamental stages recommended by Churchill (1979). Initially a qualitative research was undertaken in five ministries in the western provincial council within Colombo district through interviews with 15 senior and middle level administrative officers from different back grounds which produced 21 items with four factors emerged. These 21 -items were included in a questionnaire and quantitative study was undertaken with the same respondents who were currently involved in the service in the Western Provincial Council. 60 questionnaires were distributed and 56 questionnaires were returned and found to be useful 56, which represents a 93% response rate. More than half (52) of the respondents were female between the age of 40-55. To ensure the reliability and validity of the measures of transformational leadership construct, mainly reliability test, factor analysis, was used. Finally, 21 items were deducted into 10 items and a new scale was developed to measure the transformational leadership in public sector organizations with three dimensions idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and. Regarding the limitations of the study in this respect, only the senior and middle level managers were considered. The sample size was 60 and it was selected only from the western provincial council with the use of purposive sampling technique. Further studies with large sample size which covers the all provincial councils using newly developed scale to measure the transformational leadership and replication studies with other organizations would be useful for further generalizations of the newly developed scale.

Multi-level policy tensions in Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) development in low-income Asian cities

Abstract International development agencies, with the help of the central government, support climate change sensitive transport policies in Low Income Asian (LIA) cities. These policies include building a state of art Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in medium-sized LIA cities, including Bandung and Surabaya in Indonesia. However, the selection of BRT over indigenous modes of mobility is creating socio-political tensions at the local level. This paper uses multi-level governance as a theoretical lens to examine the relations between and distribution of power among actors in BRT investment decisions in Bandung and Surabaya within the hierarchy of national regional and local governments, international development organisations, community sector and traditional transport providers creating these tensions. It reports on fieldwork conducted in Bandung and Surabaya in 2013 including interviews with policy makers, politicians, and a range of stakeholders. The field work found that the BRT project in Bandung and Surabaya was advanced by the central government with the help of international NGOs and development organisations as the low cost green alternative to reduce traffic congestion and GHGs emission in these cities. “Go-green” campaign of central government and international development organisations made it possible for Bandung and Surabaya City government to accept BRT over traditional Angkot and regular bus modes. However, BRT project in both cities get strong opposition from social and political actors within the community, particularly from the Angkot/minibuses operators’ association. National and provincial policies were modified by Bandung in response to local pressure and BRT is limited to two peri-urban corridors that do not meet local needs. In contrast, Surabaya accepted BRT project and then turn it down due to political and social pressure appeared during the process. The research shows that local power and stakeholders are able to distort national and supranational policy-initiatives totally or in a way that while projects are delivered, they are of limited use to the local communities they intended to help.

USING OF STATE HOUSING MONOPOLY TO ADDRESS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES AS PART OF THE SOVIET HOUSING POLICY IN THE 1920-30S.: LEGAL ASPECT

The article deals with one of the little-known aspects of the housing policy of the Soviet state in 1920-30-ies., related to the use of state housing monopoly on housing solutions for the economic problems in the Soviet Union, and above all we are talking about the development of industry in the towns within a known industrialization. To this end, the villagers, who came to the urban area, settled in the dormitories and apartments, belonging to the state and is available to guide companies, getting the most dependent on the latter. The paper presents the legal acts regulating this process, given their analysis and evaluation. In particular, according to the Decree SNK on the tariff issue on 10 September 1921 provided that the relationship of workers and employees now and the institution was “full”, while there was a note that it is the company, where the worker labored, lived in the housing stock, became a place of reception of cultural and household goods, including an apartment for your family. This approach gave the Soviet government initiated the process of creating a “labor-home communities”. The authors note in this context that the idea of labor-residential communities not only refers to the production teams of factories and plants, but also to other Soviet labor collectives, in particular, teams of employees of institutions. Moreover, in accordance with this principle resettled their employees’ central government, local councils, political institutions, commissariats and other official organizations and institutions.

Change and Reorganization Characteristics of the Central Government Organization of the Rhee Seungman Government

Change and Reorganization Characteristics of the Central Government Organization of the Rhee Seungman Government

Organizational management in New Zealand’s public service

This paper explores the extent to which New Zealand’s central government organizations are effectively reporting on, and arguably therefore focusing on, the management of their organizations, as well as their operations. There is widespread concern that new public management reforms have resulted in an over-emphasis on the former at the expense of the latter. A solution to this problem requires a clear and consistent framework for how organizational management should be reported.

Application of K-Means Algorithm for Cluster Analysis on Poverty of Provinces in Indonesia

The objective of this study was to apply cluster analysis or also known as clustering on poverty data of provinces all over Indonesia.The problem was that the decision makers such as central government, local government and non-government organizations, which involved in poverty problems, needed a tool to support decision-making process related to social welfare problems. The method used in the cluster analysis was kmeans algorithm. The data used in this study were drawn from Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) or Central Bureau of Statistics on 2014.Cluster analysis in this study took characteristics of data such as absolute poverty of each province, relative number or percentage of poverty of each province, and the level of depth index poverty of each province in Indonesia. Results of cluster analysis in this study are presented in the form of grouping ofclusters' members visually. Cluster analysis in the study can be used to identify more quickly and efficiently on poverty chart of all provinces all over Indonesia. The results of such identification can be used by policy makers who have interests of eradicating the problems associated with poverty and welfare distribution in Indonesia, ranging from government organizations, non-governmental organizations, and also private organizations.

Civil Servant Involvement in the Strategic Communication of Central Government Organizations: Mediatization and Functional Politicization

ABSTRACTThis article investigates the involvement of permanent civil servants in strategic communication in government organizations within the context of mediatized democracies. Based upon an argument that the involvement in strategic communication is to be seen as part and parcel of a functional politicization of the civil service, the article identifies a significant and positive relationship between media awareness and functional politicization across the ministerial hierarchy as well as between media pressure and functional politicization, although moderated by organizational level and position. Based upon these empirical findings, the article demonstrates how strategic communication for pursuing and achieving political ends in central governments involves a permanent civil service aware of and positioned in organizations subject to pressures from the news media. The article discusses how these findings relate to different perspectives on strategic communication in central government organizations and identifies the need for mediatization research to re-emphasize central government organizations as organizations in their own right but just as importantly as an instrument for governments. Furthermore, the article points out the relevance for including non-elected actors into the research on political communication from politicians once elected into offices. The empirical analysis is performed in the context of Danish central government organizations.

Estrutura administrativa do governo brasileiro, cultura política e a busca pela sociedade ideal

A organização e a estrutura do governo central brasileiro mudaram drasticamente entre o período monárquico (1824-1889) e o atual período democrático (1985). No entanto, é possível identificar uma convergência teórica entre alguns autores brasileiros que têm não apenas refletido sobre a estrutura do Estado no Brasil, mas têm agido sobre ela: visconde do Uruguai (ministro e senador durante o primeiro período do Império no Brasil, um dos principais responsáveis pelo Movimento do Regresso - 1834-1840); Oliveira Vianna (burocrata e responsável por importantes mudanças na estrutura do Estado e sua relação com a sociedade brasileira durante as décadas de 1930-1940); Guerreiro Ramos (deputado federal e burocrata no Departamento de Administração e Serviço Público, peça fundamental para a reforma do Estado burocrático brasileiro 1940-1964); e Bresser-Pereira (titular do Ministério da Administração Federal e Reforma do Estado - 1995- 1998 -, responsável pela reforma gerencial do Estado brasileiro). O que é interessante notar sobre esses autores-atores é que, durante os seus respectivos períodos e com suas percepções sobre a política e a sociedade brasileiras, eles propugnaram que, por intermédio da reforma da estrutura político-administrativa do Estado, seria possível mudar a cultura política do povo brasileiro. Durante suas ações políticas como agentes fiduciários do Estado, buscaram - dentro de seus próprios contextos históricos e políticos - o autogoverno, a democracia ou sua qualificação.