Central Asian Region Research Articles

Интересы Саудовской Аравии в Центральной Азии в контексте внутренних и внешних реалий

The article analyzes the interests of Saudi Arabia in the Central Asian region taking into account the internal modernization processes in the Kingdom and in the context of global geopolitical turbulence. It is proved that at the present stage Saudi Arabia makes a lot of efforts to gain a foothold in Central Asia as an influential player using its religious authority along with financial and economic instruments of influence. The emphasis is placed on the fact that with the coming to power of the young reformer King Mohammed bin Salman Saudi Arabia’s foreign policy in the Central Asian direction changed from religious identity to a pragmatic approach to interaction with the countries of the region. In this context, the Kingdom positions itself as an attractive economic and investment partner. It is emphasized that the main ideological competitor of Saudi Arabia in Central Asia is Iran whose regional activity alarms the Saudis and encourages the Kingdom’s leadership to develop measures to contain it. It is concluded that Saudi Arabia actively joined the geopolitical processes in Central Asia symbolizing a new stage of the “Big Game” and confidently tries to integrate into regional energy and transport and communication projects through its generous investment injections.

TURKEY AS A CONDUCTOR OF NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL INTERESTS IN CENTRAL ASIA

The study examines the historical features of Turkey’s existence within the framework of the manifestation of national and international interests in the Central Asian region. The relevance is due to the state’s attention to cooperation with other neighboring territories, within the framework of ensuring cultural, historical, religious, and political unity. As a result of the study, aspects of the significance of the models of contact between the policies and interests of Turkey and the Central Asian states were reflected. The main guidelines for ensuring the stability of the region and the mutual interest of all countries in confronting the challenges of our time are highlighted. The author’s conclusions concerning the maintenance and further regionalization of political, international, and international relations of all players in this territory are presented.

Do Global Excellence Initiatives Lead to an Increase in Research Productivity: The Case of Kazakhstan’s World-Class University

Global excellence initiatives have been widely implemented across various regions to elevate the quality and standing of higher education institutions. The establishment of world-class universities have been one of the most frequent approaches within the global excellence initiatives. A notable example of the successful establishment of a novel world-class university is Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan, which is expected to transform Kazakhstani society by training high-qualified cadre, stimulating research and innovative activity in the country, and serving the larger society in terms of intellectual leadership and global citizenship initiatives. Despite the great promise, the university has been greatly scrutinized for the financial burden associated with its creation and maintenance. The public attention, however, has not resulted in a sufficient number of studies evaluating the various impacts of the university on Kazakhstani society and the Central Asian region at large. This study attempts to fill the gap by analyzing bibliometric data from the Web of Science to estimate the effect of the creation of Nazarbayev University on research productivity measures in Kazakhstan. More specifically, interrupted time series is applied to the data panel from 2000 to 2010 to determine whether trends in research productivity measured in terms of the number of publications, number of citations, and the size of the scholarly community (as a proxy for research capacity strengthening effect) have been affected by the establishment of the world-class university in the country. The study fills the existing gap in prior research on global academic excellence initiatives and world-class universities by suggesting quantitative insights on the research productivity effects of the initiatives.

Transboundary Water Management in Central Asia and the Iberian Peninsula: Path Dependence Approach

This article examines the historical background and the state of the art of transboundary water management in the Central Asian region, which includes the republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, on one hand, and the Iberian Peninsula, which consists of the Kingdom of Spain and the Republic of Portugal, on the other hand. These distances from each other regions are studied for the reason that both of them are located in arid landscapes and further climate change is posing grave challenges to transboundary water security. By highlighting the differences and similarities in the water management practices of Central Asia and the Iberian Peninsula, this article employs a path-dependence approach to shed light on new perspectives on good water management. As a result of identified opportunities, the Central Asian states could enhance their policy in the water management system and adopt new measures based on positive foreign experience.

Design and implementation of a Type-2 hybrid, prospective randomized trial of opioid agonist therapies integration into primary care clinics in Ukraine

IntroductionUkraine has high HIV prevalence, concentrated among people who inject drugs (PWID), mostly of opioids. Maintenance on opioid agonist therapies (OAT) is the most effective evidence-based treatment for opioid use disorder. As PWID experience high morbidity and mortality from preventable and treatable non-communicable diseases, international agencies recommend integrating OAT into primary care centers (PCC). MethodsA randomized, type-2 hybrid implementation trial was carried out to compare outcomes of OAT integration in PCC to OAT delivery at specialty treatment centers (STC) – standard-of-care. Tele-education supporting PCC providers in managing OAT, HIV, tuberculosis and non-communicable diseases along with pay-for-performance incentives were used to facilitate implementation. Consenting patients underwent 1:2 randomization to either STC or PCC. Quality health indicators (QHIs), a composite percentage of recommended primary and specialty services accessed by patients (blood/urine tests, cancer screenings, etc.), were defined as efficacy outcomes and were assessed by participant self-report at baseline and every 6 months over 24 months and electronic chart reviews after the completion of the follow-up. The primary outcome is defined as the difference in composite QHI scores at 24 months, in which a repeated measures likelihood-based mixed model with missing at random assumptions will be used. Providers at PCC completed surveys at baseline, 12 and 24 months to assess implementation outcomes including changes in stigma and attitudes towards OAT and PWID. Preliminary resultsAmong the 1459 participants allocated to STC (N = 509) or PCC (N = 950), there were no differences in clinical and demographic characteristics. Self-reported prevalences were available for HIV (42 %), HCV (57 %), and prior tuberculosis (17 %). Study retention at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months was as 91 %, 85 %, 80 %, and 74 %, respectively. ConclusionPWID have a high prevalence of medical comorbidities and integrating OAT into primary care settings has the potential to improve the health of PWID. Findings from this study can help guide implementation of integrated care in Ukraine and throughout similar low-resource, high-burden countries in the Eastern European and Central Asian region.

SPECIAL MILITARY OPERATION OF RUSSIA AND TRANSFORMATION OF «HISTORICAL POLITICS» IN THE CENTRAL ASIA COUNTRIES. PART I

The article examines the main aspects of the historical policy of the Central Asian states, observed recently. After the Western proxy war against Russia entered an active phase on the territory of Ukraine, the Central Asian republics have seen an intensification of social discussions around various topics of historical discourse. The topic of memory policy as an integral part of the country’s ideological policy on the part of the authorities of the states in the region is in a difficult state due to a number of internal and external elements of influence on this area. This text is also an attempt to consider the degree of influence of processes that can be called “memory wars” on the formation in the republics of the Central Asian region of new ideological foundations for the existence of political systems, social well-being and foreign policy positioning of the countries of Central Eurasia.

Optimising HIV spending in 12 eastern European and central Asian countries: a modelling study

The eastern European and central Asian (EECA) region has the fastest growing HIV epidemic globally. We aimed to identify how HIV resources could be allocated for maximum health impact. Between Aug 1 and Dec 23, 2022, allocative efficiency analyses were undertaken for 12 countries in the EECA region (Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Serbia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan) using HIV epidemic models developed with Optima HIV. Country models were calibrated to demographic, epidemiological, and programmatic data and validated by national teams. Three scenarios were projected from 2023 to 2030: status quo (continued 2021 spending on HIV programmes); optimised allocation of different spending envelopes to minimise HIV infections and deaths; and achieving 95-95-95 UNAIDS targets by 2030. Aggregated across the 12 models, HIV infections attributable to sexual transmission were estimated to surpass those attributable to transmission through injecting drugs in 2018, with male-to-male sexual transmission accounting for a continuously increasing share. In the status quo scenario, there were an estimated 111 520 (95% CI 28 960-208 270) new HIV infections and 34 530 (17 280-57 410) HIV-related deaths between 2023 and 2030. Aggregated optimisation results suggest that 35 860 (32%) of 111 520 new HIV infections and 9170 (27%) of 34 530 HIV-related deaths could be averted from 2023 to 2030 compared with the status quo, by prioritising antiretroviral therapy and targeted key population programmes. For ten countries, achieving 95% diagnosis was projected to not be possible with the current budget envelope, and for seven countries, this target could require more than three times the current spending. Compared with the status quo, achieving 95-95-95, or as close as possible, could avert 70 880 (64%) of 111 520 new HIV infections and 18 890 (55%) of 34 530 HIV-related deaths from 2023 to 2030. Targeted key population programmes should remain high priorities in the EECA region. Achieving 95-95-95 will require more emphasis on implementing appropriate modes of service delivery that reduce the gap in diagnosis and treatment coverage for people living with HIV. The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. For the Russian translation of the summary see Supplementary Materials section.

Monitoring of Glacier Area Changes in the Ili River Basin during 1992–2020 Based on Google Earth Engine

The Ili River Basin, a crucial transboundary river in the arid region of Central Asia, plays a significant role in the region’s ecology and water resources. However, current methods for monitoring glacier area changes in this region face challenges in automation and accuracy due to the complex terrain and climatic conditions. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform for monitoring glacier area changes in the Ili River Basin from 1992 to 2020, with a focus on improving data accuracy and processing efficiency. Utilizing the Landsat data series, we employed the random forest (RF) classification algorithm within the GEE platform to extract glacier areas, optimizing a multidimensional feature set using the Jeffries–Matusita (JM) distance method, and applied visual interpretation for data refinement. Our results demonstrated that the GEE platform, combined with the RF algorithm, provided high accuracy in glacier monitoring, achieving an overall accuracy of 89% and a kappa coefficient of 0.85. During the study period, the glacier area in the Ili River Basin decreased by 184.76 km2, with an average annual retreat rate of 6.84 km2, most notably between 3800 and 4400 m in elevation. The analysis revealed that temperature changes had a more pronounced impact on glacier dynamics than precipitation. This approach significantly enhances image utilization efficiency and data processing speed, offering a reliable tool for monitoring glacier dynamics. Future research should focus on integrating additional environmental variables and extending the temporal scope to further refine glacier dynamics modeling and predictions.

Muslims of Central Asia in Siberia in the Context of State‑Confessional Policy in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries

The Muslim population of Siberia represented an ethnically heterogeneous community, which included Tatars, as well as immigrants from Central and Central Asia, the Caucasus and other regions. Such polyethnicity and proximity to the Asian region, as one of the centers of Muslim culture, contributed to building contacts between Muslims of Siberia and Central Asia. Expansion of the territorial borders of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. and the government’s special interest in Central Asia has influenced the development of relations between the Muslim population of the two neighboring regions. The purpose of this study was to identify the main areas of interaction between the Muslim population of Siberia and Central Asia in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century, as well as to estimate the role of the state in regulating this process. Based on archival material, the author found that one of the areas of interaction of the Muslim population was organizing spiritual life. Despite the fact that the government, in an effort to extend its influence to the Asian region, provided support to the Muslim population in the second half of the 19th century, the same building codes were applied to the construction of religious buildings for Bukharans, as for all other Muslims. The closest contacts between the Muslims of Siberia and the Bukharians were built within the framework of pilgrimage trips, since often the way to Mecca for them lay through the territories of Central Asia. In addition, there were holy places in the region, which the Muslims of Siberia aspired to. This fact was of particular concern to the Government. The reforms initiated in the country aimed at limitation of the rights of the Muslim population have reduced the migration flow from the Asian region to Siberia. The government paid special attention to the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church as a tool for involving Muslims of Siberia and Central Asia in the socio-cultural space of the empire.

Discussion of Projects for the Development of the Amudarya Flotilla by the Russian Government at the Turn of the 19th–20th centuries

The article examines the approaches of government departments regarding the development of private shipping on the Amu Darya, emphasizing the importance of the Amu Darya waterway in the context of the development of the Central Asian regional transit potential at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The work also analyzes the financial indicators of this infrastructure project, its impact on strengthening the position of the Russian Empire on the territory of the southern Central Asian frontier. The author noted key role of the Military Department in the discussion and implementation of the Amudarya flotilla project, the contradictory approaches of government structures regarding private shipping projects, which ultimately led to the lack of a decision on this issue. The author concluded that, during the discussion of this water transport project, due to the uncertainty of many of its aspects and the unsettled financial issues the model of attracting private investors to its implementation was not accepted by the state. At the same time, due to geostrategic and economic reasons, the Amudarya flotilla remained important for the Military Department even in a situation of increasing budgetary unprofitability of this project. The main provisions and conclusions of the work may be of interest to historians specializing in economic history and orientalists studying the region of Central Asia and the Middle East.

Key Components of Energy Cooperation Based on the Game Analysis Between China and the Central Asian Region

Key Components of Energy Cooperation Based on the Game Analysis Between China and the Central Asian Region

ISSUES OF LIVESTOCK FARMING IN THE RESEARCH OF B. KH. KARMISHEVA

It is known that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, animal husbandry developed in its own way, as one of the important industries along with agriculture. The favorable climate of the southern oasis and the availability of wide pastures are important in this. The scientific study of this area has been widely analyzed in the studies of ethnographers such as B. Karmisheva, K. Shoniyozov, I. Hidoyatov, N. Borozna. Among them, the work of B. Kh. Karmisheva is also important, the scientist distinguishes four types of animal husbandry in his works. These are the portable method, the plowing-pasture method, the plowing method and the plowing method. The article reveals the specific aspects, differences, similarities, and gradual development of these methods over time. In addition, an attempt was made to reveal the types of livestock, their distribution by regions and breeds. In the course of the article, it was emphasized that the economic activities and traditional activities of the residents of the Central Asian region have ancient historical experiences and are distinguished by their own characteristics. It has been shown on the basis of various sources that the inhabitants of the oasis are considered one of the peoples with an ancient sedentary culture, which preserved and improved the traditions of their ancestors for thousands of years. B.Kh. Karmisheva said that the descendants of large tribes such as Transoxiana Turks, Kungyrot, Lokai, Karluq, Turks, who came from the Dashti Kipchak, from the tribes that were formerly nomads, were herdsmen. It tries to reveal on the basis of field materials that they were driven to the steppe meadows, and how cattle breeding affected their way of life.

General and abdominal adiposity and hypertension in eight world regions: a pooled analysis of 837 population-based studies with 7·5 million participants

Adiposity can be measured using BMI (which is based on weight and height) as well as indices of abdominal adiposity. We examined the association between BMI and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) within and across populations of different world regions and quantified how well these two metrics discriminate between people with and without hypertension. We used data from studies carried out from 1990 to 2023 on BMI, WHtR and hypertension in people aged 20-64 years in representative samples of the general population in eight world regions. We graphically compared the regional distributions of BMI and WHtR, and calculated Pearson's correlation coefficients between BMI and WHtR within each region. We used mixed-effects linear regression to estimate the extent to which WHtR varies across regions at the same BMI. We graphically examined the prevalence of hypertension and the distribution of people who have hypertension both in relation to BMI and WHtR, and we assessed how closely BMI and WHtR discriminate between participants with and without hypertension using C-statistic and net reclassification improvement (NRI). The correlation between BMI and WHtR ranged from 0·76 to 0·89 within different regions. After adjusting for age and BMI, mean WHtR was highest in south Asia for both sexes, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean and the region of central Asia, Middle East and north Africa. Mean WHtR was lowest in central and eastern Europe for both sexes, in the high-income western region for women, and in Oceania for men. Conversely, to achieve an equivalent WHtR, the BMI of the population of south Asia would need to be, on average, 2·79 kg/m2 (95% CI 2·31-3·28) lower for women and 1·28 kg/m2 (1·02-1·54) lower for men than in the high-income western region. In every region, hypertension prevalence increased with both BMI and WHtR. Models with either of these two adiposity metrics had virtually identical C-statistics and NRIs for every region and sex, with C-statistics ranging from 0·72 to 0·81 and NRIs ranging from 0·34 to 0·57 in different region and sex combinations. When both BMI and WHtR were used, performance improved only slightly compared with using either adiposity measure alone. BMI can distinguish young and middle-aged adults with higher versus lower amounts of abdominal adiposity with moderate-to-high accuracy, and both BMI and WHtR distinguish people with or without hypertension. However, at the same BMI level, people in south Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the region of central Asia, Middle East and north Africa, have higher WHtR than in the other regions. UK Medical Research Council and UK Research and Innovation (Innovate UK).

Водоотводный канал «Кош Тепа» — угроза продовольственной независимости государств Центральной Азии: миграционный и политико-правовой аспект

The article discusses the problems associated with the construction of the Kosh Tepa drainage canal. It is revealed that the construction is carried out with complete disregard for all the required norms and rules that must be observed during the construction of such structures. It was noted that Afghanistan has every right to use water from the Amu Darya River, the problem is in the violations allowed, due to which a significant part of the water will seep through the sandy soil and be irretrievably lost, loose soil will serve to waterlog some areas, especially those located below the level of the canal under construction, there will be a violation of the ecological balance in the region. It was emphasized that over the past decade in Central Asia, with a significant decrease in precipitation, there has been an increase in the average annual temperature. The issues of functioning of the Interstate Coordinating Water Management Commission, in which representatives of the republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan participate, have been studied. It has been revealed that the demand for water resources will gradually increase. The lack of water will affect migration processes, due to the lack of prospects for further residence in arid and arid territories, the population will mix in more prosperous regions, most of which will go to Russia. It is shown that all the economic results achieved in the agro-industrial complex of the Central Asian states are directly related to land irrigation. It is recommended that, within the framework of the functioning of the ICWC, the Central Asian states involve representatives of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in the work of the commission, at the level of a multilateral format, by adopting a package of interstate agreements, to resolve issues of water extraction from the Amu Darya River, for the needs of agriculture and industry in the Central Asian region.

Risk assessment and categorization of terrorist attacks based on the Global Terrorism Database from 1970 to 2020

Risk assessment and categorization of terrorist attacks can assist enhance awareness of terrorism and give crucial information support for anti-terrorism efforts. This study utilizes quantitative approaches for the risk assessment and categorization of terrorist attacks. A total of 210,454 terrorist attacks that occurred worldwide from 1970 through 2020 were collected in the Global Terrorism Database, and 22 indicators related to the risk of terrorist attacks were selected. Then, the moment estimation theory and four comprehensive evaluation models were utilized to identify the top 10 riskiest terrorist attacks in the world. Furthermore, the five clustering analysis methods and three evaluation criteria were performed for the risk categorization of terrorist attacks, and the visual analysis was carried out using the kernel density estimation method. The research results have identified the top 10 riskiest global terrorist attacks, which were led by the September 11 terrorist attack event, along with their downward counterfactual events. The spatial distribution of global terrorist attack risk is primarily composed of four “turbulent cores” in the region of Central Asia, Middle East & North Africa, South Asia, and Central America & Caribbean. This study also provided insights and recommendations for anti-terrorism efforts. It has realized the risk assessment and categorization of terrorist attacks, aiding in the swift identification of its risk levels, and holds immense significance for safeguarding global national security and societal stability under new circumstances.

On the consequences of climate change for the most vulnerable populations in the Central Asian region

The article reveals the problem of the impact of climate change in the Central Asian region on the most vulnerable segments of its population. The analysis identifies factors that negatively affect the level of poverty in the region, which include aging infrastructure and environmentally harmful economic activities in Central Asian countries. Climate change and its accompanying phenomena such as the increased incidence of natural disasters will lead to deterioration of the macroeconomic indicators of the Central Asian republics in the medium and long-term run and will increase in the number of people living below the international and national poverty lines. In this regard, the author proposes to attract the resources of the Eurasian Development Bank and the Eurasian Fund for Stabilization and Development already present in the region to assist the countries of Central Asia in overcoming the problems caused by climate change and adapting to this phenomenon.

The Great Game and the border issue in the Pamirs in the reports of Ralph Cobbold, 1898‒1899

The 1890s were a time of growing tension in Central Asia, stemming both from the geopolitical confrontation between the Russian and British empires and from the desire of Afghanistan and China to realise their own national interests and use the struggle of the dominant political forces to their own ends. One of the most difficult issues was the border dispute, i.e. fixing the border between Russia and Afghanistan, on the one hand, and Russia and China, on the other. Britain sought to exploit the differences on this issue to its own advantage, which could well have led to the outbreak of hostilities. The mechanism for identifying weaknesses in Russia’s position in the Pamirs comes out clearly in the 1898‒1899 reports of the British intelligence officer Ralph Cobbold, preserved in the National Archives of India. They characterise the actions of the Russian authorities in the Pamirs, the attitude of the local population to the opposing sides, and potential instruments of local influence that would allow Britain to bring the region under its control. The Russian diplomatic and military administrations were aware of the aspirations of the British Empire and used both the “stick” and the “carrot” to maintain the status quo in the region: in some issues they had to make concessions, in others the Russian side acted rigidly. Such an approach not only kept the Central Asian region in the frames of peaceful development, but also was one of the foundations of the conclusion of the Russian-British pact on the division of spheres of influence in the Middle East and Central Asia in 1907, which put an end to the Great Game and allowed the formation of the Triple Anglo-Franco-Russian alliance.

The Effect of Job Training and Attendance on Employee Performance at Pt Bank Central Asia Regional Office IV Denpasar Area Service Center

Abstract: The problem of cultivating Skills and absenteeism is important to study, because these two things are the fundamental factors that affect employee performance. Job training and attendance are the initial basis for an employee to become skilled in their field and achieve increased performance. So, in this study the authors formulate the main problem, how much job training affects the performance of BCA Regional Office IV Denpasar Service Centre employees, how much Absenteeism affects the performance of BCA Regional Office IV Denpasar Service Centre employees, and how much Job Training and Absentee-ism affect BCA employee performance Kanwil IV Denpasar Service Centre. Data collection methods used are observation, questionnaires and literature study. The samples in this study were 66 employees. The analysis technique used is multiple linear regression analysis. The results of the study show that job training and work absences have a simultaneous effect on performance by 65.5%. The correlation coefficient between job training and absenteeism on performance is a very strong relationship of 0.809. The output of this study is in the form of posters that motivate employees to continue to improve their abilities through job training and maintain discipline through work attendance

Scientific (Astro) tourism activities in Armenia and in South West and Central Asian region

Scientific Tourism activities have been initiated in a number of countries during the recent decades. Armenia was among the first countries developing Scientific Tourism and most probably the first to develop Astro Tourism. We were the first to introduce the term “Astronomical Tourism” (or “Astro Tourism”). This includes visits to astronomy-related sites (astronomical observatories, astronomical institutes, astronomy-related university departments, ancient sky/astronomy-related sites, medieval universities, planetariums, space/astronomy museums, etc.) but not only. The organization of astronomical meetings, schools, camps and other events with involvement of many visitors, we also consider as Astro Tourism activities. We give an overview of our activities, including the main project; development of Astro Tourism in the SWCA region. A detailed study of Astro Tourism sites in Armenia, Georgia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkey and (in addition) Uzbekistan was carried out, namely, modern astronomical observatories and institutes, ancient astronomy-related sites, medieval universities, planetariums, astronomy/space museums, etc. A webpage was built representing Astro Tourism in SWCA region. We also discuss the Scientific Tourism and Tourism in general as disciplines for studies and not only as service. We will share our experience on Scientific/Astro tourism activities and discuss how different items may be implemented in different regions.

The Role of Central Asian and South Caucasian Economies in Foreign Trade of the Republic of Türkiye

Based on the data of the World Integrated Trade Solution of the World Bank, this paper discusses the role of the Central Asian and South Caucasian economies in the foreign trade of the Republic of Türkiye. In order to obtain comparable results, Türkiye's exports to the Central Asian and South Caucasian regions and imports from the former to the latter are considered in constant prices. The observation shows that both trade flows increased during the period under consideration. For most of the years, many of the countries remained net importers of Turkish goods, as their exports to Türkiye exceeded the value of the goods they purchased from Türkiye. Only three of the eight countries - Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan - were net exporters to Türkiye for most of the period. The analysis shows that the largest buyers of Turkish exports in the regions were Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Uzbekistan, which together consumed more than 2.5% of total Turkish exports in 2019. In total, Central Asia and South Caucasus bought more than 3% of Turkish exports, which is quite comparable to the shares of Türkiye's trading partners such as the Netherlands, France, Spain, the US, and Italy. The share of Central Asia and South Caucasus in Türkiye's imports was much less significant.