African Studies Center Research Articles

A new generation of African writers: migration, material culture & language

There is a new interest among publishers in New York and London in books by writers of African origin. These authors have often grown up or passed their early adult years out of Africa. The Orange Prize for Fiction was awarded in London 2007 to Chimamanda Ngozie Adichie's 'Half of a Yellow Sun', and the Caine Prize for African Writing has introduced new writers such as Leila Aboulela, Biyi Bandele and Chimamanda Adichie herself to agents and publishers. This examination of the extraordinary work which has recently appeared is therefore very timely. Migration is a central theme of much African fiction written in English. Here, Brenda Cooper tracks the journeys undertaken by a new generation of African writers, their protagonists and the solid objects that populate their fiction, to depict the material realities of their multiple worlds and languages. The book explores the uses to which the English language is put in order to understand these worlds. It demonstrates how these writers have contested the dominance of colonising metaphors. The writers' challenge is to find an English that can effectively express their many lives, languages and identities. BRENDA COOPER is Director of the Centre for African Studies and a Professor in the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Cape Town. South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press (PB)

“From a Real Body, Which Was There, Proceed Radiations Which Ultimately Touch Me, Who Am Here”: An Encounter with a Missionary Portrait of a Precolonial Akan Court Official

Following Barthes' striking insights, this essay attempts an encounter with a portrait of an Akan court official on the Gold Coast taken in about 1890. The missionary photographer is given his due in the analysis, but Barthes is taken as urging us to take the signals from the photographed “object” seriously when analyzing portraits, and as having liberated us to use the complex of visual perceptions which people with long experience in a region call up when they encounter someone unknown to them. This train of thought allows us to see the official as a representative of a functioning political community with reforming intentions and an ability to absorb many of the impulses a resident Mission brought into the area. The essay is also a by-product of the effort which has been put into getting the main body of historical photographs in the Basel Mission archive catalogued to a satisfactory degree of local precision, to serve the interest in African History among the Mission's African partners, and the new Centre for African Studies at the University of Basel.

Colonialism's Clothing: Africa, France, and the Deployment of Fashion

July 01 2009 Colonialism's Clothing: Africa, France, and the Deployment of Fashion Victoria L. Rovine Victoria L. Rovine Victoria L. Rovine holds a joint appointment as Associate Professor in the School of Art and Art History and the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida. Her book, Bogolan: Shaping Culture through Cloth in Contemporary Mali (Indiana University Press, 2008), explores the changing incarnations of textiles, fashion, and art in West Africa and the Diaspora. Her current research is focused on the exchanges between African and European cultures via dress and fashion design. Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Scholar Author and Article Information Victoria L. Rovine Victoria L. Rovine holds a joint appointment as Associate Professor in the School of Art and Art History and the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida. Her book, Bogolan: Shaping Culture through Cloth in Contemporary Mali (Indiana University Press, 2008), explores the changing incarnations of textiles, fashion, and art in West Africa and the Diaspora. Her current research is focused on the exchanges between African and European cultures via dress and fashion design. Online ISSN: 1531-4790 Print ISSN: 0747-9360 © 2009 Massachusetts Institute of Technology2009 Design Issues (2009) 25 (3): 44–61. https://doi.org/10.1162/desi.2009.25.3.44 Cite Icon Cite Permissions Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Search Site Citation Victoria L. Rovine; Colonialism's Clothing: Africa, France, and the Deployment of Fashion. Design Issues 2009; 25 (3): 44–61. doi: https://doi.org/10.1162/desi.2009.25.3.44 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAll JournalsDesign Issues Search Advanced Search This content is only available as a PDF. © 2009 Massachusetts Institute of Technology2009 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

NEWS FROM ILAM: Digital Heritage Repatriation Workshop: 9-11 December 2008

The International Library of African Music (ILAM) held a very stimulating and productive workshop on "Producing, Preserving, and Repatriating Digital Cultural Heritage" on 9-11 December 2008 as the first outcome of its partnering relationship (est. July 2008) with the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, African Studies Center (ASC). ASC Director Kelly Askew and ILAM Director Diane Thram, in cooperation with the University of Michigan's African Heritage Initiative (AHI), implemented the AHI plan to assist museums and universities in Ghana in their heritage preservation needs. This was done by organizing a workshop on the challenges, benefits, ethics and results of digitizing collections of cultural heritage materials, be they text, audio recordings, video/ film recordings, artefacts, or photographs.

Early Struggles over Water: From Private to Public Water Utility in the City of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1894–1924**This article was first presented at The Power of Water: Landscape, Water and the State in Southern Africa: an Interdisciplinary Conference held at the Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, 28–29 March 2007. The article has benefited from comments made by conference

The contemporary social and political struggles between the city of Bulawayo and the Zimbabwean state over the control of water are reminiscent of earlier contestations during the first three decades after Bulawayo's establishment in 1894. During that period, the Bulawayo City Council (BCC) was locked in conflict with the Bulawayo Waterworks Company (BWC), a private concern, which won rights from the British South Africa Company (BSAC) to supply water to the fledgling colonial city in 1895. Supported by the city's white ratepayers, the Bulawayo municipality was successful in taking over the city's water supply in 1924. This article examines the conflict between the BWC and the BCC. It emphasises that the BCC's municipal power over Bulawayo was predicated upon water control, among other things. The article argues that, with the current postcolonial state's attempts to seize the role of water supply from the BCC, and hand it over to ZINWA – a parastatal created in the wake of the 1998 Water Act – the control of water in Bulawayo has come full circle. It further contends that the intensity of the recent (2007) opposition to ZINWA's overtures in Bulawayo has its antecedents in the rejection of the BWC by the municipality in the formative years of Bulawayo. When the BCC and the Bulawayo residents invoked the history of the city's ownership and infrastructural development of its water resources a century later, they were referring to the days when the municipality of Bulawayo took over water provision from the BWC. This sense of ownership was rooted in the work of their forefathers who had built and invested in a formidable reticulation structure. This conflict exemplifies the centrality of water to municipal power in both the colonial and postcolonial periods.

‘For More and Better Water, Choose Pipes!’ Building Water and the Nation on Kilimanjaro, 1961–1985**Research for this article was funded by the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Programme and completed in the spring of 2004. Sections of this paper are drawn from Chapter Five of my PhD dissertation, ‘Water Brings no Harm: Knowledge, Power, and Practice on Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 1880–1980’ (The Johns

In 1967, the government of Tanzania announced the Rural Water Supply Programme, an ambitious plan to provide piped water to the Chagga-speaking peoples of Mount Kilimanjaro. One of many development projects conceived during the period of Ujamaa socialism, its proponents claimed that it would fuel economic and social development by providing ‘more and better water’ to the people. This article contends that while projects such as the Rural Water Supply Programme were often couched in the values of Ujamaa, they also were crucial to the nation-building strategy of the majority party, the Tanzania African National Union (TANU). Political leaders, notably President Julius Nyerere, hoped to use water as a means of establishing a national presence inside rural communities in a way that would touch the daily lives of nearly everyone. This presence, in turn, would help to guide rural development, undermine ‘traditional’ forms of authority, and solidify the position of the national party in local affairs. On Kilimanjaro, the Rural Water Supply Programme promised to provide clean, reliable water to a growing population. At the same time, it challenged the centuries-old system of mifongo, or water furrows, and the clan-based societies that managed them. By introducing an alternative system controlled and managed not by locals but by government agencies, TANU in essence proposed a new understanding of water, as a ‘national’ resource rather than a local one. This article examines the development of pipeline systems under the Programme, and assesses the extent to which they both succeeded and failed in their objectives. In the process, it provides a unique window for analysing how local people interpreted and negotiated development projects of the period and, in turn, Ujamaa itself.

Israel and the Persian Gulf: Retrospect and Prospect (review)

Reviewed by: Israel and the Persian Gulf: Retrospect and Prospect Joshua Teitelbaum Israel and the Persian Gulf: Retrospect and Prospect, by Gawdat Bahgat. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006. 188 pp. $59.95. On the face of it, a book-length survey of the relations between Israel and the countries of the Persian Gulf would seem a bit out of place. After all, these states are far away from Israel’s borders, relations have been minimal, and, with the exception of Iraq, they have never directly confronted Israel in a war. But over the years the role of these countries in the conflict with Israel has grown, particularly that of Saudi Arabia and Iran, a development that is commensurate with the rise in stature of these two cross-Gulf rivals over the past quarter-century. Bahgat’s survey based on English-language secondary sources [End Page 129] contains five chapters: Introduction, Iran and Israel, Iraq and Israel, the Gulf Monarchies and Israel, and the Persian Gulf and the Levant. The first four chapters are logically titled, since this division is a natural one, but the last chapter has little to do with Israel, and its inclusion in the book is puzzling. This book will certainly meet the needs of part of the readership the author intended—university students (I would limit it to undergraduates), government officials, and educated laymen interested in international relations (p. viii). It contains the necessary background, often at the most elementary of levels (“For centuries Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire” [p. 71]). At times, however, there is so much background not directly related to relations with Israel that the reader runs the danger of not seeing the forest for the trees. The book’s analysis concentrates on the Persian Gulf side of the relationship, and one comes away without a real sense of how Israel views its relationship with these countries. Indeed, Israel has sought out relations with the Arab oil monarchies for many years, and covert contacts have been reliably reported often in the press. The author does go into some detail on Israel when discussing Iraqi and Iranian nuclear ambitions, and he has a good quote from a U.S. official about the American view on Israeli nuclear weapons— “We tolerate nuclear weapons in Israel for the same reason we tolerate them in Britain and France.” (The quotation, however, is attributed to Douglas Frantz, who is actually the author of the article in the Los Angeles Times.) Probably the most memorable endorsement of Israeli nuclear weapons on the record by a high-ranking U.S. official comes from former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld: Israel is a small state with a small population. It’s a democracy and it exists in a neighborhood that in many—over a period of time has opined from time to time that they’d prefer it not be there and they’d like it to be put in the sea. And Israel has opined that it would prefer not to get put in the sea, and as a result, over a period of decades, it has arranged itself so it hasn’t been put in the sea. (“Availability at the Munich Conference on Security Policy,” February 7, 2004, online at http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2036 ) Israel and the Persian Gulf would have profited from a close use of Middle East Contemporary Survey (MECS), which relies on primary sources. A liberal resort to MECS would have thickened out the book considerably in areas [End Page 130] where it is quite thin on the ground. (Full disclosure: From many years, I wrote the MECS chapters on most of the Persian Gulf countries.) Joshua Teitelbaum Senior Fellow, Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, Tel Aviv University; Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law and Department of Political Science, Stanford University Copyright © 2008 Purdue University

Curating the World

The Nigerian-born Okwui Enwezor is undoubtedly one of the major curators of and thinkers about art in the world today. His 2002 exhibition DOCUMENTA 11—which took up such topics as democracy, truth and reconciliation, creolisation, and the fate of four African cities—has been endlessly discussed and imitated. A show not only about the idea of the world but also introducing a new ‘global’ style of art, it is widely understood to be one of the defining ‘global’ art exhibitions. Enwezor is also known for curating a series of ground-breaking exhibitions of African art and for founding and editing NKA: JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN ART, published by the African Studies Center at New York's Cornell University. Enwezor was kind enough to grant us an interview on 26 July 2008, when he was in Sydney as a guest of the Biennale of Sydney.

“Os Bons Colonizadores”: Cuba's Educational Mission in Angola, 1976–1991

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements The article is based on a paper presented at the AEGIS European Conference on African Studies, 11–14 July 2007 at the African Studies Center in Leiden, The Netherlands. It is a summary of some preliminary results of my work-in-progress postdoctoral project at the Institute of History of the University of Duisburg-Essen in Germany. Thanks to the support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) I could carry out my investigation in Cuba, Angola, Portugal and the United States between 2004 and 2006. I interviewed about 150 persons (politicians and responsible for the mission, educationalists, civil and military cooperants, e.g., Angolan Students and Cuban teachers). I am very grateful to my interview partners for their confidence.

Virtual Forum: Archaeology and Decolonization

In this forum, patiently achieved through months of cyber-work, participants Nayanjot Lahiri (India), Nick Shepherd (South Africa), Joe Watkins (USA) and Larry Zimmerman (USA), plus the two editors of Arqueologia Suramericana, Alejandro Haber (Argentina) and Cristobal Gnecco (Colombia), discuss the topic of archaeology and decolonization. Nayanjot Lahiri teaches archaeology in her capacity as Professor at the Department of History, University of Delhi. Her books include Finding Forgotten Cities: How the Indus Civilization was Discovered (2005) and The Archaeology of Indian Trade Routes (1992). She has edited The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization (2000) and an issue of World Archaeology entitled The Archaeology of Hinduism (2004). Nick Shepherd is a senior lecturer in the Center for African Studies at the University of Cape Town, where he convenes the program in public culture in Africa. He sits on the executive committee of the World Archaeological Congress, and is co-editor of the journal Archaeologies: Journal of the World Archaeological Congress. In 2004 he was based at Harvard University as a Mandela Fellow. He has published widely on issues of archaeology and society in Africa, and on issues of public history and heritage. Joe Watkins is Choctaw Indian and archaeologist Joe Watkins is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico. He is 1/2 Choctaw Indian by blood, and has been involved in archaeology for more than thirty-five years. He received his Bachelor’s of Arts degree in Anthropology from the University of Oklahoma and his Master’s of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Anthropology from Southern Methodist University, where his doctorate examined archaeologists’ responses to questionnaire scenarios concerning their perceptions of American Indian issues. His current study interests include the ethical practice of anthropology and the study of anthropology’s relationships with descendant communities and Aboriginal populations, and he has published numerous articles on these topics. His first book Indigenous Archaeology: American Indian Values and Scientific Practice (AltaMira Press, 2000) examined the relationships between American Indians and archaeologists and is in its second printing His latest book, Reclaiming Physical Heritage: Repatriation and Sacred Sites (Chelsea House Publishers 2005) is aimed toward creating an awareness of Native American issues among high school students. Larry J. Zimmerman is Professor of Anthropology and Museum Studies and Public Scholar of Native American Representation at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis and the Eiteljorg Museum of American Indians and Western Art. He is Vice President of the World Archaeological Congress. He also has served WAC as its Executive Secretary and as the organizer of the first WAC Inter-Congress on Archaeological Ethics and the Treatment of the Dead. His research interests include the archaeology of the North American Plains, contemporary American Indian issues, and his current project examining the archaeology of homelessness.

Iran Rising

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. This article draws on, and uses some material from, reports and comment pieces by the author on Iranian issues over the years. 2. Ali Gheissari and Vali Nasr, Democracy in Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. See also Dilip Hiro, Iran Today. London: Politico's, 2006. 3. See Allister Sparks, Tomorrow is Another Country. Sandton, Johannesburg: Struik Book Distribution, 1994. 4. BBC On This Day, 1 February 1979: Exiled Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran. 5. Conversation with Shapur Bakhtiar, 1 February 1979. 6. Private conversation with former employee of the centre. 7. See Maryam Poya (pen name of Elaheh Rostami Povey), Women, Work and Islamism: Ideology and Resistance in Iran. London: Zed Books, 1999. 8. Ziba Mir-Hosseini and Richard Tapper, Islam and Democracy in Iran. London: I.B. Tauris, 2006, p. 47, which contains a full and enlightening account of Eshkevari's career, together with some of his writings and speeches. 9. Ibid., p. 61. 10. Ibid., p. 169. 11. Shirin Ebadi, with Azadeh Moaveni, Iran Awakening. London: Rider, 2006, p. 38. 12. The size of the Iranian diaspora, most of it post-revolutionary, is estimated at between 1 and 4 million. Abbas Milani gives a figure of 2 million, Lost Wisdom. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers, 2004, p. 157. 13. Ebadi, Iran Awakening, p. 79. 14. Gheissari and Nasr, Democracy in Iran, p. 158. 15. Mir Hosseini and Tapper, Islam and Democracy in Iran, p. 151. 16. Ibid., p. 2. 17. Milani, Lost Wisdom, pp. 120–121. 18. Nasrin Alavi (ed. and trans.), We are Iran. London: Portobello Books, 2005, p. 1. 19. Ebadi, Iran Awakening, p. 95. 20. “Iran is now at the core and Egypt is at the periphery”, remarks by Professor Asher Susser. Director of the Moshe Dayan Centre for Middle Eastern and African Studies, at an on-the-record seminar on the New Middle East at Chatham House, 15 February 2007. 21. See Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. 22. Rami G. Khouri, Daily Star, Beirut, 5 January 2007. 23. Ghassan Charbel, “Iran and the Obstructing Third”, Al-Hayat, 13 December 2007. 24. Fred Halliday, “The Matter with Iran”, Open Democracy, posted 1 March 2007. 25. Ali Ansari, Confronting Iran. London: Hurst, 2006, p. 90. 26. Kenneth Pollack, The Persian Puzzle. New York: Random House, 2006. 27. Frank Barnaby, “Iran's Nuclear Activities”, Oxford Research Group Report, 5 March 2006. 28. Ebadi, Iran Awakening, pp. 204–208. Additional informationNotes on contributorsMartin WoollacottMartin Woollacott is a former Guardian foreign correspondent and foreign editor, who still contributes to that paper. He has covered numerous major news stories, principally in Asia and the Middle East, including the Vietnam War from 1971 to 1975, the Bangladesh War, the Indian Emergency and the 1991 Gulf War. He reported on the Iranian Revolution in 1978 and 1979 and returned to Iran several times in the 1980s and 1990s. He is the author of After Suez: Adrift in the American Century (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006).

Teaching & Learning Guide for: Teaching African History in an Era of Globalization

Teaching & Learning Guide for: Teaching African History in an Era of Globalization

African Urban Economies: Viability, vitality, or vitiation? edited by Deborah Fahy Bryceson and Deborah Potts

This thorough and well-composed volume provides a comprehensive introduction to the key issues of urban development in contemporary eastern and southern Africa. The book is quite multi-disciplinary, with contributions from scholars in sociology, development studies, geography, architecture, psychology, anthropology, gender studies and international studies included. It has 14 chapters; of which, four were written by one of the two co-editors. Most of the other chapters were presented at a 2001 workshop at Leiden University's African Studies Center. Inevitably, volumes like this depend in part on who comes to the conference where the ideas germinate. As such, we end up therefore missing case studies on key cities in the region (notably absent: Addis Ababa, Luanda and Lusaka). On the other hand, we have the rare opportunity of reading excellent analyses of cities such as Mogadishu or Chitungwiza that are only infrequently examined in the scholarly literature of African urban studies. The book also benefits from being produced by veteran field researchers, many of whom are based in or are from Africa itself.

Kyoko Nakamura (中村香子) “Adornments of the Samburu in Northern Kenya: A Comprehensive List” The Centre for African Area Studies, KyotoUniversity, 2005, 160p. +viii, 非売品.

Kyoko Nakamura (中村香子) “Adornments of the Samburu in Northern Kenya: A Comprehensive List” The Centre for African Area Studies, KyotoUniversity, 2005, 160p. +viii, 非売品.

Ruth Noorduyn. The Assertion of Rights to Agro-pastoral Land in North Cameroon: A Cascade to Violence? Leiden: African Studies Centre, 2005. Research Report 76. xv + 408 pp. Photographs. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. No price reported. Paper.

Ruth Noorduyn. The Assertion of Rights to Agro-pastoral Land in North Cameroon: A Cascade to Violence? Leiden: African Studies Centre, 2005. Research Report 76. xv + 408 pp. Photographs. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. No price reported. Paper. - Volume 49 Issue 3

Orality in the service of Karamojong autonomy: polity and performance*

It has been assumed by Jack Goody and others that literacy facilitates the external penetration and domination of African societies. However the case of the Karamojong in north-east Africa challenges the inevitability of the rise of literacy. Where there is no thirst for literate education, the very features of orality noted by Jack Goody function to maintain traditional politics against predations by state or global economy. The Karamojong age-class system has proven persistent in the face of various attempts to ‘develop’ Karamoja. The key to the maintenance of the rule of elders is the performance of prayer at the sacrifice of an ox, yet prayer has been relatively little studied in research on orality. Translations of prayers recorded at an initiation ceremony reveal the usual antiphonal litany that makes the sacrifice a consensually determinative event. Policy-making comes about not by public discussion, but in the prayers as the prayer-leaders command the actors, whether animate or to us apparently inanimate, in their world to bless the life and lives of the community, yet not to afflict. Politics then is most intimately related with this religion that so many observers see as marginal. The conclusion is that through a range of subtle ways, orality privileges the power of elders in a way that enables them to direct their people in ways that maximize Karamojong autonomy to a surprising degree in these times of global intervention. *Different presentations of this topic were at SOAS, London under the titles, ‘Dichotomies and Diffusions of Orality and Literacy in Three Aspects of Karamojong Culture: Governance, Law and Religion’ for the Language, Power, and Society Workshop on 19 July 2003, and ‘Orality and Literacy in the Service of Karamojong Autonomy’ at a seminar for the Centre of African Studies on 11 December 2003.

The Middle East: Unbearable Status Quo versus Unpredictable Changes

P. R. Kumaraswamy is associate professor at the Centre for West Asian and African Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru, New Delhi, India.

The church of women: gendered encounters between Maasai and missionaries

In Africa, why have so many more women converted to Christianity than men? What explains the appeal of Christianity to women? What does religious conversion mean for the negotiation of gender and ethnic identity? What role does religious conversion play as a tool for empowering women? In The Church of Women, Dorothy L. Hodgson looks at how gender has shaped the encounter between missionary priests and Maasai men and women in Tanzania. Building on her extensive experience with Maasai and the Spiritan missionaries, Hodgson explores how gendered change among Maasai has shaped women's notions of religious faith, religious practice, and spiritual power. Hodgson explores the appeal of Catholicism among women in East Africa, the enmeshing of Catholic practice with Maasai spirituality, and the meaning of conversion to new Christians. This rich, engaging, and original book challenges notions about religious encounter and the role of ethnic identity, female authority, and power among Maasai. Dorothy L. Hodgson teaches anthropology at Rutgers University, where she is affiliated with the Center for African Studies and the Women's and Gender Studies Department. She is author of Once Intrepid Warriors (IUP, 2001).

Centre for African renaissance studies, the academy, the state and civil society: Methodological implications of transdisciplinarity and the African perspective

The Centre for African Renaissance Studies (CARS) at the University of South Africa was born in a political and social environment in which there is a new groundswell for a rebirth, where there are calls for ownership, accountability, excellence, responsiveness and substantive democracy on new terms. Surrounding the centre are the state, the academy and civil society, each with its limitations as well as possibilities for an institution that is established to foster, nourish and effect change in the context of the African Renaissance. The challenge before CARS is therefore one that involves the creation of new knowledge, analyses and interpretations of social reality on an ongoing basis. In working out its linkages and its strategies for dialogue, engagement and co‐determination around the past, present and future of Africa, with players such as the state, the academy and civil society in general, therefore, the centre needs of necessity to clarify its position, role and vision in the field of knowledge production. It is here that transdisciplinarity signifies a distinct methodology in knowledge generation, development and utilisation. This article argues that the nature of the crisis we face today is definitely no longer that of ‘economics’, ‘politics’ or ‘culture’ per se; neither is it, for that matter, a crisis of the humanities versus the natural sciences; but rather it is one in which there is a peculiar convergence of all these factors and which, together, form an entirety exceeding the sum of its parts.

African Online Digital Library

African Online Digital Library