Cent Fat Research Articles

Assessment of a narrative approach to the diet history.

To assess the quality of a narrative form diet history (DH). Reproducibility assessed with data obtained at 6-week intervals. Criterion validity assessed using energy intake to estimated energy expenditure (EI:BMR) cutoff limits. Relative validity assessed by comparing results for energy and macronutrients at baseline and month 2 of an intervention trial with those obtained from 3-day food records (FR). Community-based dietary intervention trials for the study of metabolic syndrome in the Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. Reproducibility: 43 healthy female volunteers. Mean age 58.72 years (range 50-67), mean body mass index (BMI) 25.79 (range 21-36). 45 healthy volunteers--18 males (mean age 46.9 years, mean BMI 27.8), and 27 females (mean age 45.7 years, mean BMI 26.2), attending a study on the effect of diet on metabolic variables. Reproducibility: wide SD values indicated a high degree of intraindividual variation, but correlation coefficients were comparable to those of similar studies. underreporting was inconsistent with individuals, but was greater with the DH than the FR at each stage of the dietary trial (significant at month 1, P < 0.01). Underreporters indicated higher intakes of protein during the trial (P < 0.05). Weaker associations were found between the DH and FR data for energy values, but there was strong agreement for per cent fat consumed as saturated and monounsaturated fat at each stage of the trial. The narrative form DH performs as well as standardized interviews, but more work needs to be done at the micro level, focusing on aspects which deal with foods likely to be underreported in the particular study context. This can be achieved through continued research using combined methodologies.

Nutritional hepatic steatosis and mortality after burn injury in rats

To investigate the effects of diet composition and starvation on hepatic steatosis and mortality after severe burn injury in rats. Experiment 1: rats received either normal chow (55 cent of energy carbohydrates, 14 cent fat, 31 cent protein), a high-fat (40 cent carbohydrates, 40 cent fat, 20 cent protein), or a high-carbohydrate diet (81 cent carbohydrates, 4 cent fat, 15 cent protein) ad libitum for 6 days. Another three groups received these diets ad libitum for 6 days after 48|h starvation. Experiment 2: mortality after 60 cent total body surface area scald burn was determined in a control group of rats and a group with nutritionally induced hepatic steatosis. Hepatic steatosis was induced by feeding the rats a high-fat diet (40 cent carbohydrates, 4 cent fat, 15 cent protein) ad libitum for 6 days. Without starvation, liver triglyceride content (mg/g liver) increased in response to the high-fat diet (25.6'6.9) compared to normal chow (9.4'3.8; P < 0. 05); the high-carbohydrate diet had no influence on liver triglyceride content (12.4'3.7). Refeeding after starvation resulted in elevated (P < 0.05) liver triglyceride content in the high-fat (18.8'8.3) and the high-carbohydrate group (28.7'14.4 vs control 6. 7'3.7). Liver triglyceride content correlated (R2=0.72; P < 0.05) to non-protein energy intake but not to total energy intake. Burn caused 33 cent mortality in the hepatic steatosis group and no deaths in the control group (P < 0.05). Diet composition and preceding starvation independently manipulate hepatic fat content in rats. Hepatic steatosis increases mortality after burn injury. Thus, nutritional interventions to reduce hepatic fat accumulation may be beneficial.

Influence of dietary fat level and increased adiposity on growth and fat deposition in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)

Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), (initial weight ∼ 90 g) were fed diets differing in fat content (27.5% versus 12.6%) to examine the effects of dietary fat level on growth and fat deposition. During phase 1, which was run for 11 weeks, the fish were fed either a high- (27.5%) or low-fat (12.6%) diet. The fish were held at 14.5 °C under a 24 h:0 h light:dark photoperiod and were fed for 4 h each day during this phase. Subsequently, in phase 2, both diets were presented simultaneously, and the influence of adiposity on growth and fat deposition was examined in a growth trial which lasted for 8 months. There were no significant differences in body weights at the end of phase 1 (360.7 ± 7.7 g versus 348.2 ± 18.7 g for the fish on the high- and low-fat diets, respectively), but body composition was influenced by the fat content of the diet. The trout fed the high-fat diet had higher viscerosomatic indices (VSI: 11.7 ± 2.0% versus 9.1 ± 0.7%) and higher visceral fat contents (per cent fat: 38.0 ± 6.7% versus 23.3 ± 3.7%) than trout fed the low-fat diet. The percentage fat contents of the carcass (per cent fat: 12.4 ± 1.0% versus 9.3 ± 0.7%) and whole body (per cent fat: 15.4 ± 1.6% versus 10.5 ± 0.7%) were higher amongst the trout fed the high-fat diet, and these fish had a higher energy gain than those fish fed the low-fat diet. Differences in adiposity between the trout fed the high- and low-fat diets did not result in any differences in weight gain when the fish were provided with both diets simultaneously. During phase 2, the fish that had previously been fed the low-fat diet deposited more fat than those fed the high-fat diet during phase 1. The latter maintained whole body fat concentrations at ± 15% (phase 1: 15.4 ± 1.6%; phase 2: 15.2 ± 1.2%), whereas the fish that had been fed the low-fat diet increased their body fat concentration during phase 2 (phase 1: 10.5 ± 0.7%; phase 2: 14.7 ± 1.3%). Thus, there were no significant differences between groups in either body weight or proximate composition by the end of the experiment.

Nutrient constituents of some samples of shelled roasted kernel of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) from Ghana

The nutrient contents of samples of shelled roasted kernel of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) were evaluated by determining the proximate composition, free fatty acids, and mineral contents. The samples contained 8.7 per cent moisture, 50.1 per cent fat. 9.9 per cent protein, 1.2 per cent ash, and 3.8 per cent free fatty acids (calculated as lauric acid). The calcium and phosphorus contents were 346 and 567 mg per 100 dry sample, respectively. Ghana Jnl agric. Sci. Vol.31(1) 1998: 125-126

The effect of dietary changes on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of six Labrador Retrievers

Six healthy, spayed female Labrador Retrievers (aged 5·5 to 11 years), kept under controlled conditions of exercise and housing, were fed a diet of 15 per cent fat, 24 per cent carbohydrate and 33 per cent protein for two weeks before and between each of three test diets, of differing fat to carbohydrate ratios (A 13:44, B 20:33, C 25:26 fat:carbohydrate gm per cent dry weight) given in a predetermined order for four weeks each. Fasting plasma lipoproteins and total fatty acids were measured weekly. In the fourth week of each test period post-prandial plasma lipoproteins were measured. Diets B and C increased total (P<0·001) and LDL cholesterol (P<0.05) whilst diet A increased HDL triglyceride (P<0·05). Eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5) increased on diets B and C, and oleic acid (C18:1) on diet A. Post-prandial hypertriglyceridaemia occurred on all diets. Chylomicron clearance was slower on higher fat diets. Relatively small dietary changes produced significant alterations of plasma lipids, lipoproteins and chylomicron clearance.

Normal levels of energy expenditure in patients with reported "low metabolism'.

The present study examined the hypothesis that patients with apparent diet-resistant obesity have subnormal energy expenditure. Ten biochemically euthyroid patients (eight women and two men), aged 21-76 years, with either excessive gynoid fat distribution or obesity (BMI 23.8-41.0), were referred to the department thought to be suffering from a low metabolic rate syndrome since dietary records showed very low energy intake (< 5 MJ day-1) in combination with failure to lose weight on low-energy diets. Twenty-four-hour energy expenditure (24-h EE), basal energy expenditure (BEE) and sleeping energy expenditure (SEE) were measured in a respiration chamber on a fixed activity programme. The patients consumed a diet containing 37 energy-per cent (E%) fat, 47 E% carbohydrate and 16 E% protein. The individual energy intake was estimated from a previously established algorithm between 24-h EE and fat-free mass (FFM) estimated by bioimpedance. Results were compared with equivalent values in a reference population of 76 subjects ranging from normal weight to obese. No evidence of low metabolism was found in terms of adjusted 24-h EE in the patients with diet resistance when compared with the control group (9263 +/- 819 kJ vs. 9211 +/- 558 kJ). No differences were found when comparing adjusted BEE and SEE in the two groups (7655 +/- 727 vs. 7411 +/- 770 kJ 24 h-1 and 7048 +/- 672 vs. 6911 +/- 408 kJ 24 h-1). The physical activity index (PAI) during the chamber stay was likewise within normal values (1.32 +/- 0.07 vs. 1.34 +/- 0.04; NS).

Body composition in rheumatoid arthritis.

The objectives were to assess bone mineral density (BMD) at different body sites in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients related to disease severity parameters, disease duration and corticosteroid intake, and to look for body composition measurements as lean body mass (LBM) and per cent fat as possible prognostic factors in RA. Body composition values were measured cross-sectionally in 89 RA patients and compared with 157 controls. Patients were divided into males and postmenopausal females, ever steroid treated and never steroid treated. BMD values of all body sites were significantly lower compared to normals in all subgroups, except for the lumbar spine (L2 L4) in all postmenopausal women and males never treated with steroids. There was also no clear BMD decrease in the arms of male RA patients. LBM was significantly lower in all body parts compared to controls, whereas the fat distribution ratio (FDR) showed a clear shift to abdominal in all patients. These are parameters of chronic illness and a predictor of cardiovascular disease, respectively. BMD data confirm our previous data in different patient groups (low at appendicular sites, normal lumbar BMD), but no clear influence of disease severity and steroid intake could be found. Body composition data, as LBM and FDR, are also altered in RA patients: decreased LMB and more central FDR. Their usefulness as prognostic markers in early RA patients needs to be clarified prospectively in these patient groups.

Effect of high‐energy and reduced‐energy breakfasts comprising fat‐substituted foods on appetite, satiety and subsequent nutrient intake

Assesses the effect of fat substitutes on satiety and subsequent food intake in men; 50 per cent of fat in pork sausages was replaced by natural fat substitutes ‐ Avicel, Tapiocaline and Simplesse. Results showed that high‐energy fat breakfasts comprising full‐fat sausages led to delayed satiety compared with high‐energy CHO breakfasts. There were no differences between hunger and satiety ratings nor energy and fat intakes following different fatsubstituted breakfasts on the test day and the following day. The deficit in energy between high‐energy and reduced‐energy breakfasts was maintained throughout the test day. Consumption of one reduced‐fat meal resulted in a significant reduction of energy intake, which was not compensated for on the test day or on the following day.

Fat content and sponge cake quality

Reports a recipe modification exercise which was undertaken to determine whether an acceptable sponge cake could be produced using low‐fat spreads in place of full‐fat margarine or butter. The textural and sensory qualities of the cakes were studied and a price analysis carried out to identify price differences between low‐fat and full‐fat spreads. Presents results which indicate that, as the fat content of cakes decreases, the sensory quality also decreases, although an acceptable product can be produced using a spread containing 65 per cent fat. Finds that low‐fat spreads are in many cases more expensive than their full‐fat equivalents. Highlights the need for further work to identify a fat replacer which can be used successfully in baking.

Nutrition and allorejection impact of lipids

Polyene n-3 and n-6 fatty acids are claimed to have immunomodulating properties. The impact of nutritional variations on transplant rejection was therefore studied in the heterotopic rat heart allotransplant model with particular focus on lipids. Twenty per cent fat emulsions with differing n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratios were continuously infused (9 g fat per kg bodyweight per day; n = 10 in each group) after transplantation until rejection: safflower oil (n-3/n-6 = 1 370 ), fish oil ( 7.6 1 ), soybean oil ( 1 6.5 ) and a 1:1 mixture of safflower and fish oil ( 1 2.1 ; oil control group). Graft survival time, subpopulations of infiltrating and circulating immunocomponent cells and interleukin-6 release by circulating mononuclear cells were analysed. In the safflower oil, fish oil and soybean oil groups graft survival was prolonged to 13.3, 12.3 and 10.4 days vs. 6.7 days in the oil control group and 7.8 days in the saline control group ( p < 0.01). In the two groups with the highest prolongation of graft survival the number of infiltrating cells was reduced by up to 50% and the peripheral blood mononuclear cell interleukin-6 release by up to 45%. Beyond that, circulating T-cells were reduced in the fish oil group. The n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratio determines the immunomodulating effect of lipids. Both n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, if applied as the main fatty acid source, exert immunosuppressive effects by diminished infiltration, mobilization and cytokine release by immunocompetent cells. A n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratio of 1 2 proved to be immunologically neutral. The recipient's disposition to reject an allotransplant is influenced by the fatty acid composition of exogenously supplied lipids.

Bone mineral and fat measurement with a novel dual photon absorptiometer

The authors have produced an original dual-photon absorptiometer, with specific algorithms, permitting real-time automatic bone recognition, to reduce examination time (to 5 min). It permits the simultaneous measurement of the mineral density of an area of bone (BMD), the fat percentage of the soft tissues (PFST) that surround it, and the variation in this percentage. It visually represents, on one and the same picture, freely defined in terms of dimension and definition, bone mineral distribution and fat mass distribution. The performances are analysed, using phantoms and taking ten control subjects, in the region of the femoral neck. The variations in PFST in the control subjects are compared with the measurements carried out in MRI in the same region. In all these control subjects, there is a regular decrease in PFST in this region along an upper external/lower internal axis. This decrease has been likened to a regression line, the slope of which, representing between -0.16 per cent of fat per cm and -1.7 per cent per cm, has a mean value of -0.81 per cent per cm. The BMD is thus reduced by 0-2.5 per cent, depending on the subjects.

Abundance, body composition and reproductive output of Gammarus minus (Crustacea: Amphipoda) in ten cold springs differing in pH and ionic content

SUMMARY1. A survey of thirty‐two rheocrene springs in central Pennsylvania revealed that, Like Gammarus in lakes and streams, Gammarus minus is absent from springs with pH &lt;6.0 and conductivity &lt;25μS cm−1 (total range in pH = 4.6–7.7, and in conductivity = 14–411 μS cm−1).2. In ten springs G. minus density was positively correlated with Ca2+ and Mg2+ hardness, but not with pH, unless three springs with either an exceptionally high velocity or extremely high densities of the potentially competing snail Fontigens nickliniana were omitted.3. Adults were larger in the springs with few or no large predators than in those with more predators. In all ten springs, adult dry mass was unrelated to spring pH and ionic content, but brooding female dry mass covaried positively with Ca2+ and Mg2+ hardness in the five predator‐poor springs.4. Body water, Na and Ca contents and body mass/length ratios varied independently of spring pH and ionic content. Water content was inversely correlated with fat content, but even when expressed as a percentage of fat‐free wet mass, it was unrelated to water chemistry.5. In juveniles, males and non‐brooding females, fat content varied independently of spring pH and ionic content, but in brooding females it was correlated with alkalinity and Ca2+ and Mg2+ hardness. The cost of reproduction in brooding females may have been a factor here; they had significantly lower per cent fat than did non‐brooding females. Juvenile fat content did not differ significantly among spring populations, whereas adult fat content did. The per cent fat of brooding females covaried positively with body size among springs, and this was marginally true for non‐brooding females, as well. The residuals of brooding female per cent fat against dry mass were not related to water chemistry.6. Brood size (number of embryos in a brood) and brood mass varied significantly among populations, but independently of spring pH and ionic content. Both covaried positively with maternal body size among springs. The residuals of these relationships were unrelated to water chemistry, as was the percentage of females brooding.7. G. minus from a pH 6 spring survived better and lost less body mass in acidic soft water than did those from a pH 7.6 spring. However, although G. minus has apparently been able to adapt (or acclimate) to pH 6 water it has failed to adapt to more acidic waters. A physiological or structural constraint may be involved because this species has probably had ample opportunity to evolve resistance to dilute acidic water. This hypothesis is consistent with the threshold effect observed: above pH 6 G. minus shows very little evidence of osmotic or metabolic stress, but beiow pH 6 viable populations apparently cannot survive at all. However, the gradual linear decrease in population density of G. minus with decreasing alkalinity and Ca2+ and Mg2+ hardness suggests that other factors may also be involved (e.g. a decrease in food quality).

Epidemiology and Natural History of Breast Cancer: Implications for the Body Weight–Breast Cancer Controversy

The mechanisms of differentiation of the mammary gland apparently can explain the contradictory findings on the association of breast cancer with excess body weight. Excess weight may be related to the initiation of breast cancer in premenopausal women through its effect on menstrual cycles and on progesterone secretion and to the promotion of breast cancer in postmenopausal women through its effect on estrogen metabolism. Although body weight is unlikely to be as strong a risk factor for breast cancer as it is for endometrial cancer, it may have a greater importance from a public health point of view, because the ratio of the incidence of breast cancer to that of endometrial cancer is 4.5 in whites and 6 in blacks. Thus, more studies seem warranted. It is not possible, however, to rule out the view that the reported correlation between excess weight and breast cancer is attributable to failure to adjust for potential confounders, such as dietary fat. New insights may come from the combined assessment of weight, different types of dietary fat, and reproductive history factors known to be involved in the natural history of breast cancer. For example, in the Women's Intervention Nutrition Study (WINS), the survival rate of breast cancer patients on a 20 per cent fat diet is being compared with that of breast cancer patients of similar weight keeping their usual 35 to 40 per cent fat diet. This investigation will show whether dietary fat influences the rate of progression (metastasis) and of promotion (occurrence of cancer in the other breast) independent of body weight.

Milk yield and composition in the punare Thrichomys apereoides

1. 1. Per cent fat composition of the milk was unusually high, ranging from 30.2 ± 0.8% on day 2, to 21.0 ± 1.0% on day 21. 2. 2. Per cent protein changed significantly over time, ranging from 11.9 ± 0.6% to 17.4 ± 0.9%. 3. 3. Lactose content was low, and decreased significantly over time, from 4.62 ± 0.1% to 2.65 ± 0.1%. 4. 4. Milk production peaked at day 14 and ceased by day 35. 5. 5. The unusual milk composition of this tropical rodent, is one of several adaptations correlated with reproduction in a xeric environment.

Field evaluation of mechanical milk sampling devices on road tankers

Six tanker‐mounted milk sampling devices (called ‘samplers’) were evaluated by comparing the samples taken by them with those taken manually from the same milk supplies by trained operators. The samplers under test, although of different design, transferred the milk from the tanker milk line directly to the sample bottle at a point near the milk pump. The sampling rate was adjusted before each operation to ensure a fixed sampling rate from the complete supply and provide a standard sample size. When sampling for compositional quality (per cent fat) from refrigerated farm bulk milk tanks the mean difference (bias) between sampler and manual control values ranged from 0.003 to 0.018, while the standard deviation of individual differences (sampler ‐ control) ranged from 0.043 to 0.088. When sampling for hygienic quality the mean difference (bias) between sampler and control samples for the standard plate count (expressed as log10) ranged from 0.026 to 0.39, while the SD of individual differences ranged from 0.11 to 0.49.It is concluded that with correct installation and operation the sampling devices tested are satisfactory for sampling producer milk supplies for compositional quality but not all are suited for sampling for hygienic quality. However, with minor adjustment in design or operation, in some cases performance may be improved.

Chemical and nutritive characteristics of fish silage produced by biological fermentation

Fish silage was compared before and after biological fermentation with L. plantarum. When lactose remaining after fermentation was accounted for, no ( P < 0·05) differences in proximate composition were found. Trout had a larger per cent protein and fat and less ash than white perch both before and after fermentation. Total amino acids increased ( P < 0·05) as a result of fermentation and the increase was reflected in changes in the amino acid profile. A decrease ( P < 0·05) in moisture and an increase ( P < 0·05) in fat were found after the silage was stored at both ambient temperature and 37°C for 35 days. The decrease in moisture was due to condensation on the fermentation vessels and the extraction of lactic acid with the fat resulted in higher fat values. All amino acids increased during storage to a small degree and the increase was attributed to the decrease in moisture. The pH of the silage did not change during storage at either ambient temperature or 37°C but the silage storage at ambient temperature was more acidic than that stored at 37°C. Silage at both temperatures had a sufficiently low pH to maintain a successful fermentation. There was an increase ( P < 0·05) in water-soluble nitrogen at both temperatures as storage time increased. This change should improve the digestibility of the silage. Samples stored at 37°C had a higher Total Volatile Bases value than samples stored at ambient temperature. Total Volatile Bases increased ( P < 0·05) as storage times increased up to 18 days and then started to decline. No trends were established when oxidative rancidity measurements were considered. The TBA values were high and could indicate a problem with rancidity which may require the addition of antioxidants. Biologically fermenting fish and storage of the silage under the conditions used in this experiment will result in an increase in free fatty acids due to lipolysis. If the oil is extracted it will yield an inferior product by commmercial standards. Broiler chicks fed a ration containing 5% and 10% fish silage had better ( P < 0·05) feed efficiency than did birds fed a ration with no silage. Results indicate that up to 10% fish silage could be included in broiler rations without adversely affecting feed efficiency or body weight.

Differential effect of common snack foods on caloric intake, growth and obesity in weanling male and female rats with hypothalamic obesity

In order to see whether weanling normophagic rats with hypothalamic obesity (VMNL rats) become hyperphagic and more obese than when fed lab chow, and to see in addition whether there is a possible sex difference in whatever response is found, male and female VMNL rats were fed lab chow for 14 days after lesion production and then, for the following 42 days, they received Hostess HoHos, potato chips, marshmallows and french fries in addition to lab chow. At termination, body weights were similar among the groups, but VMNL rats were fatter and shorter than controls. Also, female VMNL rats were fatter and shorter than male VMNL rats and layed down more fat per unit of food energy. Total caloric intake was greater in controls than in VMNL rats and in males than in females. However, the females showed a decrease in intake and the males an increase over time. Males ate more lab chow and french fries than females. Lab chow was the only food that VMNL rats ate more of than controls. The VMNL rats ate less french fries, HoHos and potato chips than controls, but similar amounts of marshmallows. There was no sex difference in macronutrient intake and per cent macronutrient intake. Moreover, controls ate as much carbohydrate and less per cent carbohydrate than VMNL rats, more fat than VMNL rats, but normal per cent fat and normal protein and per cent protein. Sex X lesion interactions indicated that female VMNL rats ate more per cent carbohydrate than female controls and male VMNL rats, ate more protein than male controls. The greater degree of obesity in the females despite the lower caloric intake may be due to enhanced food energy utilization. The data also show that weanling VMNL rats do not exhibit the great preference for palatable diets that have been reported for mature rats with ventromedial hypothalamic area lesions and that the only sex difference in intake is with french fries, which have neither the highest fat nor the highest carbohydrate content of the foods tested.

Influence of liver fat on experimental Escherichia coli mastitis in periparturient cows.

Eleven cows with a wide range of liver fat (5.7 to 51.4 per cent) at seven days post partum were experimentally infected in a single quarter with a capsular Escherichia coli at 10 days post partum. The results suggested that a fatty liver in itself does not influence the severity of mastitis. All animals had clinical mastitis 10 hours after infection but no animals became severely ill and no treatment was given. Four out of five animals in the group with less than 20.2 per cent liver fat had bacteria in their milk at 10 hours after infection but these bacteria were eliminated by 12 hours. The six animals in the group with more than 28.3 per cent fat in their liver retained viable bacteria in the udder for much longer; with two animals bacteria were shed and abnormal milk was secreted for up to four months despite antibiotic therapy.

Influence of dietary fat on some metabolic responses of cattle to fasting

Metabolic responses were compared in Brahman cross and British cattle to 96 hours fasting from two maintenance diets; low fat (2.5 per cent fat) and high fat (9.2 per cent fat), which were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Within breeds, the plasma concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids were increased (P less than 0.01) and the amounts of urinary urea nitrogen and creatinine excreted and respiratory quotient lowered (P less than 0.01) by feeding the high fat diet beforehand. Within dietary groups, the Brahman crosses showed a higher adaptation to a lipid fuel economy with a concomitant greater conservation of body nitrogen than the British animals. The results point to a role for dietary lipid in ameliorating bodyweight loss in cattle during periods of inadequate nutrition.

Raising the Orphan Foal

Orphan foals are best reared by fostering them onto a brood mare of appropriate size. If no foster mother is available, they can be reared on 2 per cent fat skimmed cow's milk fortified with dextrose at the rate of 20 gm per L. This should be slowly increased from 10 per cent of body weight at 1 day of age to 25 per cent of body weight at 10 days of age. The amount should then be held constant until weaning. Alternatively, foals can be reared on milk replacers. Manufacturers' feeding instructions rarely mimic the milk intake obtained by a foal nursing her dam, and problems have been observed in milk replacer fed foals. It may be better to feed milk replacers at 1- to 2-hour intervals as a 12.5 per cent solution. The volume fed can be slowly increased from 5 per cent of body weight at day 1 to 20 per cent of body weight at day 10. Fresh water, hay, and good-quality creep feed with at least an 18 per cent crude protein should be offered from 2 weeks of age. Foals can be weaned at 8 to 12 weeks of age.