Cellular Proteostasis Network Research Articles

The formation, function and regulation of amyloids: insights from structural biology.

Amyloid diseases are characterized by the accumulation of insoluble, β-strand-rich aggregates. The underlying structural conversions are closely associated with cellular toxicity, but can also drive the formation of functional protein assemblies. In recent years, studies in the field of structural studies have revealed astonishing insights into the origins, mechanisms and implications of amyloid formation. Notably, high-resolution crystal structures of peptides in amyloid-like fibrils and prefibrillar oligomers have become available despite their challenging chemical nature. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has revealed that dynamic local polymorphisms in the benign form of the prion protein affect the transformation into amyloid fibrils and the transmissibility of prion diseases. Studies of the structures and interactions of chaperone proteins help us to understand how the cellular proteostasis network is able to recognize different stages of aberrant protein folding and prevent aggregation. In this review, we will focus on recent developments that connect the different aspects of amyloid biology and discuss how understanding the process of amyloid formation and the associated defence mechanisms can reveal targets for pharmacological intervention that may become the first steps towards clinically viable treatment strategies.

Abnormal Osmotic Avoidance Behavior in C. elegans Is Associated with Increased Hypertonic Stress Resistance and Improved Proteostasis.

Protein function is controlled by the cellular proteostasis network. Proteostasis is energetically costly and those costs must be balanced with the energy needs of other physiological functions. Hypertonic stress causes widespread protein damage in C. elegans. Suppression and management of protein damage is essential for optimal survival under hypertonic conditions. ASH chemosensory neurons allow C. elegans to detect and avoid strongly hypertonic environments. We demonstrate that mutations in osm-9 and osm-12 that disrupt ASH mediated hypertonic avoidance behavior or genetic ablation of ASH neurons are associated with enhanced survival during hypertonic stress. Improved survival is not due to altered systemic volume homeostasis or organic osmolyte accumulation. Instead, we find that osm-9(ok1677) mutant and osm-9(RNAi) worms exhibit reductions in hypertonicity induced protein damage in non-neuronal cells suggesting that enhanced proteostasis capacity may account for improved hypertonic stress resistance in worms with defects in osmotic avoidance behavior. RNA-seq analysis revealed that genes that play roles in managing protein damage are upregulated in osm-9(ok1677) worms. Our findings are consistent with a growing body of work demonstrating that intercellular communication between neuronal and non-neuronal cells plays a critical role in integrating cellular stress resistance with other organismal physiological demands and associated energy costs.

Underlying mechanisms and chemical/biochemical therapeutic approaches to ameliorate protein misfolding neurodegenerative diseases

Protein misfolding and inclusion body formations are common events in neurodegenerative diseases characterized by deposition of misfolded proteins inside or outside of neurons, and are commonly referred to as "protein misfolding neurodegenerative diseases" (PMNDs). These phenotypically diverse but biochemically similar aggregates suggest a highly conserved molecular mechanism of pathogenesis. These challenges are magnified by presence of mutations that render individual proteins subject to misfolding and/or aggregation. Cell proteostasis network and molecular chaperoning are maintaining cell proteome to preserve the protein folding, refolding, oligomerization, or disaggregation, and play formidable tasks to maintain the health of organism in the face of developmental changes, environmental insults, and rigors of aging. Maintenance of cell proteome requires the orchestration of major pathways of the cellular proteostasis network (heat shock response (HSR) in the cytosol and the unfolded protein response (UPR) in the endoplasmic reticulum). Proteostasis responses culminate in transcriptional and post-transcriptional programs that up-regulate the homeostatic mechanisms. Proteostasis is strongly influenced by the general properties of individual proteins for folding, misfolding, and aggregation. We examine a growing body of evidence establishing that when cellular proteostasis goes awry, it can be reestablished by deliberate chemical and biological interventions. We first try to introduce some new chemical approaches to prevent the misfolding or aggregation of specific proteins via direct binding interactions. We then start with approaches that employ chemicals or biological agents to enhance the general capacity of the proteostasis network. We finish with evidence that synergy is achieved with the combination of mechanistically distinct approaches to reestablish organ proteostasis. © 2016 BioFactors, 43(6):737-759, 2017.

Fluorescence Turn-On Folding Sensor To Monitor Proteome Stress in Live Cells.

Proteome misfolding and/or aggregation, caused by a thermal perturbation or a related stress, transiently challenges the cellular protein homeostasis (proteostasis) network capacity of cells by consuming chaperone/chaperonin pathway and degradation pathway capacity. Developing protein client-based probes to quantify the cellular proteostasis network capacity in real time is highly desirable. Herein we introduce a small-molecule-regulated fluorescent protein folding sensor based on a thermo-labile mutant of the de novo designed retroaldolase (RA) enzyme. Since RA enzyme activity is not present in any cell, the protein folding sensor is bioorthogonal. The fluorogenic small molecule was designed to become fluorescent when it binds to and covalently reacts with folded and functional RA. Thus, in the first experimental paradigm, cellular proteostasis network capacity and its dynamics are reflected by RA–small molecule conjugate fluorescence, which correlates with the amount of folded and functional RA present, provided that pharmacologic chaperoning is minimized. In the second experimental scenario, the RA–fluorogenic probe conjugate is pre-formed in a cell by simply adding the fluorogenic probe to the cell culture media. Unreacted probe is then washed away before a proteome misfolding stress is applied in a pulse-chase-type experiment. Insufficient proteostasis network capacity is reflected by aggregate formation of the fluorescent RA–fluorogenic probe conjugate. Removal of the stress results in apparent RA–fluorogenic probe conjugate re-folding, mediated in part by the heat-shock response transcriptional program augmenting cytosolic proteostasis network capacity, and in part by time-dependent RA–fluorogenic probe conjugate degradation by cellular proteolysis.

Proteotoxic stress and ageing triggers the loss of redox homeostasis across cellular compartments.

The cellular proteostasis network integrates the protein folding and clearance machineries in multiple sub-cellular compartments of the eukaryotic cell. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site of synthesis and folding of membrane and secretory proteins. A distinctive feature of the ER is its tightly controlled redox homeostasis necessary for the formation of inter- and intra-molecular disulphide bonds. Employing genetically encoded in vivo sensors reporting on the redox state in an organelle-specific manner, we show in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that the redox state of the ER is subject to profound changes during worm lifetime. In young animals, the ER is oxidizing and this shifts towards reducing conditions during ageing, whereas in the cytosol the redox state becomes more oxidizing with age. Likewise, the redox state in the cytosol and the ER change in an opposing manner in response to proteotoxic challenges in C. elegans and in HeLa cells revealing conservation of redox homeostasis. Moreover, we show that organelle redox homeostasis is regulated across tissues within C. elegans providing a new measure for organismal fitness.

Sir2 links the unfolded protein response and the heat shock response in a stress response network

The Heat Shock Response (HSR) in the cytosol and the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) in the endoplasmic reticulum are major pathways of the cellular proteostasis network. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, HSR is regulated by transcription factor Hsf1, and UPR Ire1 branch activates transcription factor Hac1. Here we demonstrate systemic regulation of proteostasis through a direct link between UPR and HSR. Hsf1 is activated by UPR and its HSR depends on intact UPR. This link is mediated by Sir2, which is not only essential for Hsf1 HSR but also required for Hsf1 activation by UPR. Excess Sir2 augments Hsf1 activation by UPR and can compensate for its impairment in UPR-defective strains. Sir2 is upregulated by UPR but, in turn, it also attenuates this pathway, ensuring that UPR functions only transiently.

Hierarchical Functional Specificity of Cytosolic Heat Shock Protein 70 (Hsp70) Nucleotide Exchange Factors in Yeast

Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) molecular chaperones play critical roles in protein homeostasis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, cytosolic Hsp70 interacts with up to three types of nucleotide exchange factors (NEFs) homologous to human counterparts: Sse1/Sse2 (Heat shock protein 110 (Hsp110)), Fes1 (HspBP1), and Snl1 (Bag-1). All three NEFs stimulate ADP release; however, it is unclear why multiple distinct families have been maintained throughout eukaryotic evolution. In this study we investigate NEF roles in Hsp70 cell biology using an isogenic combinatorial collection of NEF deletion mutants. Utilizing well characterized model substrates, we find that Sse1 participates in most Hsp70-mediated processes and is of particular importance in protein biogenesis and degradation, whereas Fes1 contributes to a minimal extent. Surprisingly, disaggregation and resolubilization of thermally denatured firefly luciferase occurred independently of NEF activity. Simultaneous deletion of SSE1 and FES1 resulted in constitutive activation of heat shock protein expression mediated by the transcription factor Hsf1, suggesting that these two factors are important for modulating stress response. Fes1 was found to interact in vivo preferentially with the Ssa family of cytosolic Hsp70 and not the co-translational Ssb homolog, consistent with the lack of cold sensitivity and protein biogenesis phenotypes for fes1Δ cells. No significant consequence could be attributed to deletion of the minor Hsp110 SSE2 or the Bag homolog SNL1. Together, these lines of investigation provide a comparative analysis of NEF function in yeast that implies Hsp110 is the principal NEF for cytosolic Hsp70, making it an ideal candidate for therapeutic intervention in human protein folding disorders.

A Golgi-localized Mannosidase (MAN1B1) Plays a Non-enzymatic Gatekeeper Role in Protein Biosynthetic Quality Control

Conformation-based disorders are manifested at the level of protein structure, necessitating an accurate understanding of how misfolded proteins are processed by the cellular proteostasis network. Asparagine-linked glycosylation plays important roles for protein quality control within the secretory pathway. The suspected role for the MAN1B1 gene product MAN1B1, also known as ER mannosidase I, is to function within the ER similar to the yeast ortholog Mns1p, which removes a terminal mannose unit to initiate a glycan-based ER-associated degradation (ERAD) signal. However, we recently discovered that MAN1B1 localizes to the Golgi complex in human cells and uncovered its participation in ERAD substrate retention, retrieval to the ER, and subsequent degradation from this organelle. The objective of the current study was to further characterize the contribution of MAN1B1 as part of a Golgi-based quality control network. Multiple lines of experimental evidence support a model in which neither the mannosidase activity nor catalytic domain is essential for the retention or degradation of the misfolded ERAD substrate Null Hong Kong. Instead, a highly conserved, vertebrate-specific non-enzymatic decapeptide sequence in the luminal stem domain plays a significant role in controlling the fate of overexpressed Null Hong Kong. Together, these findings define a new functional paradigm in which Golgi-localized MAN1B1 can play a mannosidase-independent gatekeeper role in the proteostasis network of higher eukaryotes.

Chemical protein folding probes to quantify folded and functional cellular proteins to understand proteostasis network functions (753.1)

While much is known about protein folding in buffers, current methodology is limited in probing how protein folding in vivo is influenced by the cellular proteostasis network quantitatively, particularly with regard to partitioning client proteins between folded and functional, soluble and misfolded, and aggregated conformational states in the face of genetic and environmental stresses. Herein we develop protein‐of‐interest folding probes that specifically recognize the functional and folded fraction of the protein‐of‐interest, , and serve to quantify the amount of folded and functional protein in cell lysate. Rapid depletion of ATP levels during cell lysis minimizes folding equilibria shifts by creating sufficient cellular chaperone holdase activity. The folding probes strategy is exemplified with retroaldolase (RA), a de novo designed enzyme, and transthyretin, a tetrameric plasma protein. This strategy revealed that partitioning of RA and TTR mutants between the aforementioned conformational states was strongly influenced by cytosolic proteostasis network perturbations, including expression of a polyglutamine protein.

Changes in translation rate modulate stress-induced damage of diverse proteins

Proteostasis is the maintenance of the proper function of cellular proteins. Hypertonic stress disrupts proteostasis and causes rapid and widespread protein aggregation and misfolding in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Optimal survival in hypertonic environments requires degradation of damaged proteins. Inhibition of protein synthesis occurs in response to diverse environmental stressors and may function in part to minimize stress-induced protein damage. We recently tested this idea directly and demonstrated that translation inhibition by acute exposure to cycloheximide suppresses hypertonicity-induced aggregation of polyglutamine::YFP (Q35::YFP) in body wall muscle cells. In this article, we further characterized the relationship between protein synthesis and hypertonic stress-induced protein damage. We demonstrate that inhibition of translation reduces hypertonic stress-induced formation and growth of Q35::YFP, Q44::YFP, and α-synuclein aggregates; misfolding of paramyosin and ras GTPase; and aggregation of multiple endogenous proteins expressed in diverse cell types. Activation of general control nonderepressible-2 (GCN-2) kinase signaling during hypertonic stress inhibits protein synthesis via phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2α (eIF-2α). Inhibition of GCN-2 activation prevents the reduction in translation rate and greatly exacerbates the formation and growth of Q35::YFP aggregates and the aggregation of endogenous proteins. The current studies together with our previous work provide the first direct demonstration that hypertonic stress-induced reduction in protein synthesis minimizes protein aggregation and misfolding. Reduction in translation rate also serves as a signal that activates osmoprotective gene expression. The cellular proteostasis network thus plays a critical role in minimizing hypertonic stress-induced protein damage, in degrading stress-damaged proteins, and in cellular osmosensing and signaling.

Disorders of Protein Misfolding: Alpha-1-Antitrypsin Deficiency as Prototype

When taken together, three conceptual paradigms have led to major advances in understanding the clinical manifestations of protein misfolding and recently have led to novel therapeutic strategies. First, disorders caused by misfolded proteins are now classified according to the mechanism by which they cause clinical effects, either loss-of-function or toxic gain-of-function. Loss-of-function is the result of mutations that specifically alter folding such that the function of the protein is impaired or such that the protein does not reach the cellular destination where its function is required or both. Cystic fibrosis is the prototype disease caused by a loss-of-function mechanism in that all of the disease manifestations arise from lack of chloride transport. The CFTRΔF508 variant does not reach the apical surface of epithelial cells predominantly because of misfolding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and rapid degradation by the proteasome. The small amount of CFTR ΔF508 that does reach the cell surface is unstable and this probably also contributes to loss of chloride transport activity at epithelia. Toxic gain-of-function mechanisms are attributable to the pathologic activity of the mutant protein itself or to the effect of its mislocalization or both. This type of mechanism is implicated when the mutant protein produces a toxic effect in a cell line or live animal model. Huntington’s disease and early-onset forms of Alzheimer’s disease are prototypes of the gain-of-function mechanism as protein misfolding leads to degeneration of neurons. Diseases with childhood onset also fit into the paradigm, including conditions as diverse as respiratory failure in the newborn (1) and early-onset diabetes (2), among many others. A second paradigm has come from the recognition that cells possess multiple mechanisms by which they can respond to the consequences of protein misfolding, whether involving proteotoxicity and/or protein mislocalization. These mechanisms are now referred to as the proteostasis regulatory network (3). The proteostasis network is constituted by systems that are designed to counteract proteotoxicity including chaperones to prevent mis-folding and disposal pathways, such as the ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal pathway and the autophagic response, to degrade mis-folded intermediates. The proteostasis machinery also includes signaling pathways such as the unfolded protein response and the heat shock response that alter the cellular transcriptome to counteract proteotoxicty by a broad series of mechanisms at multiple intracellular sites. Third, we have come to realize that disease caused by misfolded proteins reflects the net effect of the alteration in the protein together with the response of the cellular proteostasis network. For example, in gain-of-function diseases clinical manifestations occur only when proteotoxic effects overwhelm the proteostasis network. This means that polymorphic variants in the proteostasis network may constitute genetic modifiers of the disease phenotype. Moreover, it means that drugs which enhance endogenous proteostasis mechanisms could theoretically prevent or delay the progression of clinical disease that is caused by proteotoxicity. We will use α1-antitrypsin deficiency (ATD) as a prototype of diseases caused by misfolded proteins and review recent findings about its pathobiology and the development of novel pharmacological strategies. The classical form of this deficiency is a relatively unique member of the protein misfolding diseases in that it causes disease in one target organ, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), by loss-of-function and causes diseases in another target organ, hepatic fibrosis and carcinoma, by gain-of-function mechanism(s).

Translational attenuation differentially alters the fate of disease‐associated fibulin proteins

Mutations in fibulin proteins that cause cellular secretion deficiencies are linked to a variety of diseases, ranging from retinopathies to cutis laxa (CL). One secretion-deficient fibulin mutant, R345W fibulin-3, causes the macular dystrophy malattia leventinese by increased endoplasmic reticulum retention and/or extracellular misfolding. Herein, we report that small-molecule activation of the PERK arm of the unfolded protein response partially rescues R345W secretion deficiencies through translational attenuation mediated by eIF2α phosphorylation. Enhanced mutant fibulin-3 secretion can also be achieved by activation of a PERK-independent eIF2α kinase through arsenite treatment and is independent of activating transcription factor 4 signaling and protein translation. However, this translational attenuation strategy was unsuccessful for enhancing the secretion deficiencies of fibulin-5 mutants associated with age-related macular degeneration or CL. While lowered growth temperature enhanced the secretion of mutants associated with CL (C217R and S227P), these effects were not mediated through translational attenuation. In stark contrast to the situation with fibulin-3, protein translation was required for efficient wild-type and mutant fibulin-5 secretion. These data suggest that alteration of specific cellular signaling pathways and proteostasis network components can differentially influence fibulin fate, a hypothesis that could be exploited as a therapy for fibulin-related diseases.

FoldEco: A Model for Proteostasis in E. coli

To gain insight into the interplay of processes and species that maintain a correctly folded, functional proteome, we have developed a computational model called FoldEco. FoldEco models the cellular proteostasis network of the E. coli cytoplasm, including protein synthesis, degradation, aggregation, chaperone systems, and the folding characteristics of protein clients. We focused on E. coli because much of the needed input information--including mechanisms, rate parameters, and equilibrium coefficients--is available, largely from in vitro experiments; however, FoldEco will shed light on proteostasis in other organisms. FoldEco can generate hypotheses to guide the design of new experiments. Hypothesis generation leads to system-wide questions and shows how to convert these questions to experimentally measurable quantities, such as changes in protein concentrations with chaperone or protease levels, which can then be used to improve our current understanding of proteostasis and refine the model. A web version of FoldEco is available at http://foldeco.scripps.edu.

Indirect inhibition of 26S proteasome activity in a cellular model of Huntington’s disease

Pathognomonic accumulation of ubiquitin (Ub) conjugates in human neurodegenerative diseases, such as Huntington's disease, suggests that highly aggregated proteins interfere with 26S proteasome activity. In this paper, we examine possible mechanisms by which an N-terminal fragment of mutant huntingtin (htt; N-htt) inhibits 26S function. We show that ubiquitinated N-htt-whether aggregated or not-did not choke or clog the proteasome. Both Ub-dependent and Ub-independent proteasome reporters accumulated when the concentration of mutant N-htt exceeded a solubility threshold, indicating that stabilization of 26S substrates is not linked to impaired Ub conjugation. Above this solubility threshold, mutant N-htt was rapidly recruited to cytoplasmic inclusions that were initially devoid of Ub. Although synthetically polyubiquitinated N-htt competed with other Ub conjugates for access to the proteasome, the vast majority of mutant N-htt in cells was not Ub conjugated. Our data confirm that proteasomes are not directly impaired by aggregated N-terminal fragments of htt; instead, our data suggest that Ub accumulation is linked to impaired function of the cellular proteostasis network.

Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system to study intercompartmental proteostasis: Interrelation of mitochondrial function, longevity, and neurodegenerative diseases

The protein quality control system, composed of molecular chaperones and proteases, is of vital importance for the maintenance and function of the proteome and the health of the cell. To achieve this, the cellular proteostasis network integrates the protein folding machinery across all compartments of the eukaryotic cell to enable efficient communication and coordinate a rapid response of folding capacity. Quality control in the mitochondria, however, differs from its cytosolic counterpart due to its prokaryotic origin, and is entirely encoded by the nuclear genome. The control and regulatory cross-talk of mitochondrial function in cellular proteostasis is essential for cellular metabolism, organismal development, and lifespan. Consequently, mitochondrial dysfunction has dramatic effects on the development and progression of a number of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Friedreich's ataxia and Parkinson's disease. Studies using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system have greatly contributed to our current knowledge of inter-compartmental proteostasis on the cellular and organismal levels.

Chaperones and multitasking proteins in the nucleolus: networking together for survival?

The nucleolus has emerged as a key player that regulates cell growth, survival and the recovery from stress. Progress in proteomics made it possible to sequence the nucleolar proteome under different physiological conditions. Together with other research, this work revealed the presence of multiple chaperones and co-chaperones in the nucleolus. Molecular chaperones are components of a larger network that promotes protein homeostasis, thereby providing continuous adaptation to a changing environment. Recent studies suggest that the cellular chaperone network is divided into individual branches which orchestrate specific functions. Input from separate branches is then combined to 'fine-tune' the cellular proteostasis network. Based on the latest developments in nucleolar and chaperone biology, we speculate that a unique network comprising chaperones, co-chaperones and multitasking proteins is located in nucleoli. This network supports and regulates fundamental biological processes, including ribosome biogenesis, cell signaling, and the stress response.