Candida Albicans Cell Wall Research Articles

Preparation, Physicochemical Characterization and Anti-fungal Evaluation of Nystatin-Loaded PLGA-Glucosamine Nanoparticles.

Nystatin loaded PLGA and PLGA-Glucosamine nanoparticles were formulated. PLGA were functionalized with Glucosamine (PLGA-GlcN) to enhance the adhesion of nanoparticles to Candida Albicans (C.albicans) cell walls. Quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method was employed using PLGA and PLGA-GlcN with various drug-polymer ratios for the preparation of nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were evaluated for size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, drug crystallinity, loading efficiency and release properties. DSC, SEM, XRPD, 1H-NMR, and FT-IR were performed to analyze the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles. Antifungal activity of the nanoparticles was evaluated by determination of MICs against C.albicans. The spectra of 1H-NMR and FT-IR analysis ensured GlcN functionalization on PLGA nanoparticles. SEM characterization confirmed that particles were in the nanosize range and the particle size for PLGA and PLGA-GlcN nanoparticles were in the range of 108.63 ± 4.5 to 168.8 ± 5.65nm and 208.76 ± 16.85nm, respectively. DSC and XRPD analysis ensured reduction of the drug crystallinity in the nanoparticles. PLGA-GlcN nanoparticles exhibit higher antifungal activity than PLGA nanoparticles. PLGA-GlcN nanoparticles showed more antifungal activity with appropriate physicochemical properties than pure Nystatin and PLGA nanoparticles.

Immunoadjuvant Effect of Ginsenoside F4

There have been many attempts to treat candidal infections by immunological approaches. One attempt is to find a certain adjuvant that induces a protective antibody in host. Previously, we have reported that MAb B6.1, specific for β-1,2 mannotriose located on the Candida albicans cell wall (CACW), protects mice against disseminated candidiasis and vaginal infection. However, the isolation of such an epitope is very costly and requires tremendous amount of time. Thus, this led us to find a simple way to obtain a compound that induces protective antibody. For this purpose, we focused on the discovery of immuoadjuvants capable of inducing protective antibodies. In the present study, we tested whether ginsenoside F4 from Red Ginseng has immunoadjuvant activity against fungal infection. Data displayed that a formulae of CACW combined with F4 (CACW/F4) enhanced production of anti-C. albicans antibody in mice. Analyses by IgG isotyping showed that the formulae suppressed IgG1 (Th2-immunity polarized) but enhanced IgG2b (Th1-immunity polarized), thus resulting in a Th1 immune response. This effect was assessed in a murine model of disseminated candidiasis due to C. albicans. The assesment displayed that the formulae enhanced resistance of mice against the candidiasis, whereas CACW alone was not protective. Overall, F4 has immunoadjuvant activity that provokes the induction of protective antibody in mice through a possible mechanism that enhances Th1 immunity in mice.

Components of Candida albicans cell wall involved in mast cell degranulation and extracellular-trap formation in response to fungal infection

Components of Candida albicans cell wall involved in mast cell degranulation and extracellular-trap formation in response to fungal infection

The Cek1‑mediated MAP kinase pathway regulates exposure of α‑1,2 and β‑1,2‑mannosides in the cell wall of Candida albicans modulating immune recognition

ABSTRACTThe Cek1 MAP kinase (MAPK) mediates vegetative growth and cell wall biogenesis in the fungal pathogen Candida albicans. Alterations in the fungal cell wall caused by a defective Cek1‑mediated signaling pathway leads to increased β‑1,3‑glucan exposure influencing dectin‑1 fungal recognition by immune cells. We show here that cek1 cells also display an increased exposure of α‑1,2 and β‑1,2‑mannosides (α‑M and β‑M), a phenotype shared by strains defective in the activating MAPKK Hst7, suggesting a general defect in cell wall assembly. cek1 cells display walls with loosely bound material as revealed by transmission electron microscopy and are sensitive to tunicamycin, an inhibitor of N‑glycosylation. Transcriptomal analysis of tunicamycin treated cells revealed a differential pattern between cek1 and wild type cells which involved mainly cell wall and stress related genes. Mapping α‑M and β‑M epitopes in the mannoproteins of different cell wall fractions (CWMP) revealed an important shift in the molecular weight of the mannan derived from mutants defective in this MAPK pathway. We have also assessed the role of galectin‑3, a member of a β‑galactoside‑binding protein family shown to bind to and kill C. albicans through β‑M recognition, in the infection caused by cek1 mutants. Increased binding of cek1 to murine macrophages was shown to be partially blocked by lactose. Galectin-3−/− mice showed increased resistance to fungal infection, although galectin-3 did not account for the reduced virulence of cek1 mutants in a mouse model of systemic infection. All these data support a role for the Cek1‑mediated pathway in fungal cell wall maintenance, virulence and antifungal discovery.

Protective effect of antigen delivery using monoolein-based liposomes in experimental hematogenously disseminated candidiasis

We evaluated the potential of a liposomal antigen delivery system (ADS) containing Candida albicans cell wall surface proteins (CWSP) in mediating protection against systemic candidiasis. Treatment of bone-marrow-derived dendritic cells with CWSP-loaded dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide:monoolein (DODAB:MO) liposomes enhanced and prolonged their activation comparatively to free antigen, indicating that liposome-entrapped CWSP were released more sustainable. Therefore, we immunized mice with CWSP either in a free form or loaded into two different DODAB:MO liposome formulations, respectively designated as ADS1 and ADS2, prior to intravenous C. albicans infection. Immunization with ADS1, but not with ADS2, conferred significant protection to infected mice, comparatively to immunization with CWSP or empty liposomes as control. ADS1-immunized mice presented significantly higher serum levels of C. albicans-specific antibodies that enhanced phagocytosis of this fungus. In these mice, a mixed cytokine production profile was observed encompassing IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17A and IL-10. Nevertheless, only production of IL-4, IL-17 and IL-10 was higher than in controls. In this study we demonstrated that DODAB:MO liposomes enhance the immunogenicity of C. albicans antigens and host protection in a murine model of systemic candidiasis. Therefore, this liposomal adjuvant could be a promising candidate to assess in vaccination against this pathogenic fungus. Statement of SignificanceThis work describes the immunomodulation capacity of the previously validated antigen delivery system (ADS) composed by dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB) and monoolein (MO) lipids incorporating the cell wall surface proteins (CWSP) from C. albicans. Here, we not only present the ability of this system in facilitating antigen uptake by DCs in vitro, but also that this system induces higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and opsonizing specific IgG antibodies in serum of mice immunized subcutaneously. We show that the ADS are efficient nanocarrier and modulate the immune response against intravenous C. albicans infection favoring mouse protection. In sum, we show that the incorporation of C. albicans antigens in DODAB:MO nanocarries are a promising vaccine strategy against C. albicans fungal infection.

The GCA1 gene encodes a glycosidase-like protein in the cell wall of Candida albicans.

Candida albicans Gca1p is a putative glucoamylase enzyme which contains 946 amino acids, 11 putative sites for N-glycosylation and 9 for O-glycosylation. Gca1p was identified in β-mercaptoethanol extracts from isolated cell walls of strain C. albicans SC5314 and it is involved in carbohydrate metabolism. The significance and the role of this protein within the cell wall structure were studied in the corresponding mutants. The homozygous mutant showed that GCA1 was not an essential gene for cell viability. Subsequent phenotypic analysis performed in the mutants obtained did not show significant difference in the behavior of mutant when compared with the wild strain SC5314. Zymoliase, Calcofluor White, Congo red, SDS, caffeine or inorganic compounds did not affect the integrity of the cell wall. No differences were observed when hyphal formation assays were carried out. However, an enzyme assay in the presence of substrate p-nitrophenyl-α-D-glucopyranoside enabled us to detect a significant decrease in glycosidase activity in the mutants compared with the parental strain, revealing the function of Gca1.

Nanoscopic cell-wall architecture of an immunogenic ligand in Candida albicans during antifungal drug treatment.

The cell wall of Candida albicans is composed largely of polysaccharides. Here we focus on β-glucan, an immunogenic cell-wall polysaccharide whose surface exposure is often restricted, or "masked," from immune recognition by Dectin-1 on dendritic cells (DCs) and other innate immune cells. Previous research suggested that the physical presentation geometry of β-glucan might determine whether it can be recognized by Dectin-1. We used direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy to explore the fine structure of β-glucan exposed on C. albicans cell walls before and after treatment with the antimycotic drug caspofungin, which alters glucan exposure. Most surface-accessible glucan on C. albicans yeast and hyphae is limited to isolated Dectin-1-binding sites. Caspofungin-induced unmasking caused approximately fourfold to sevenfold increase in total glucan exposure, accompanied by increased phagocytosis efficiency of DCs for unmasked yeasts. Nanoscopic imaging of caspofungin-unmasked C. albicans cell walls revealed that the increase in glucan exposure is due to increased density of glucan exposures and increased multiglucan exposure sizes. These findings reveal that glucan exhibits significant nanostructure, which is a previously unknown physical component of the host-Candida interaction that might change during antifungal chemotherapy and affect innate immune activation.

Blockwise synthesis of a pentasaccharide structurally related to the mannan fragment from the Candida albicans cell wall corresponding to the antigenic factor 6

A spacer-armed pentasaccharide structurally related to a fragment of the mannan from the cell wall of the fungus Candida albicans and corresponding to the antigenic factor 6 has been synthesized. This compound, comprising two α-(1→2)- and three β-(1→2)-linked mannose residues, was prepared by glycosylation of a selectively protected α-(1→2)-dimannoside bearing an aglycone spacer and a free OH group at atom C(2´) with a β-(1→2)-trimannoside glycosyl donor. The successful synthesis evidences that large β-(1→2)-oligomannoside donor blocks can be used for the preparation of oligosaccharides including extended sequences of repeating β-(1→2)-linked mannose residues.

Immunoadjuvant Effect of Platycodin D from Platycodon grandiflorum

In vaccine development, the major points may be induction of effective and increased levels of antibody pro- duction. This is especially the case when the antigenic sources are carbohydrates. For many years, thus, we have researched various types of formulations such as liposomal and conjugate vaccines. However, the fastidious formulation process and high costs are a problem. For this reason, there is currently a focus on utilizing immunoadjuvants. In this present study, we tested if platycodin D (PLD) from Platycodon Radix have immunoadjuvant activity against the cell wall of Candida albicans (CACW). The resulting data showed that in the murine model of antibody production, CACW combined with PLD (CACW/ PLD/IFA) increased the production of antibodies specific to C. albicans when compared to the antibody production by (CACW/IFA)-induction, which was used as a negative control (P<0.05). In the case of (CACW/PLD/IFA), the antibody pro- duction was 1.4 times as that of the CFA. In addition, formulations containing either had a prolonged antibody inducing activ- ity maintaining the initial titers of antibody as compared to the CFA formula. Cytokine profiling with the antisera displayed that the PLD produced both Th1 and Th2 immunoresponses, but Th1 dominant was much greater (P<0.05). Furthermore, (CACW/PLD/IFA) formula enhanced resistance of mice against disseminated candidiasis, whereas the CFA had no such effect. In conclusion, PLD has an immunologic activity, which is protective against the disease. Thus, PLD can be a goof candidate for a new immunoadjuvant in development of the fungal vaccine.

The Mkk2 MAPKK Regulates Cell Wall Biogenesis in Cooperation with the Cek1-Pathway in Candida albicans.

The cell wall integrity pathway (CWI) plays an important role in the biogenesis of the cell wall in Candida albicans and other fungi. In the present work, the C. albicans MKK2 gene that encodes the putative MAPKK of this pathway was deleted in different backgrounds and the phenotypes of the resultant mutants were characterised. We show here that Mkk2 mediates the phosphorylation of the Mkc1 MAPK in response to cell wall assembly interfering agents such as zymolyase or tunicamycin and also to oxidative stress. Remarkably, mkk2 and mkc1 mutants display related but distinguishable- cell wall associated phenotypes and differ in the pattern of MAPK phosphorylation under different stress conditions. mkk2 and mkc1 mutants display an altered expression of GSC1, CEK1 and CRH11 genes at different temperatures. Combined deletion of MKK2 with HST7 supports a cooperative role for the Cek1-mediated and CWI pathways in regulating cell wall architecture under vegetative growth. However, and in contrast to Mkc1, Mkk2 does not seem to play a role in the virulence of C. albicans in the mouse systemic model or the Galleria mellonella model of infection.

Eugenol, an essential oil of clove, causes disruption to the cell wall of Candida albicans (ATCC 14053)

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of eugenol on the integrity of the cell wall of Candida albicans. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) and percentage inhibition of diameter growth (PIDG) of eugenol on C. albicans (ATCC 14053) were determined. The effect of eugenol on the growth profile was also evaluated. The release of cellular material and changes in cell permeability, including ultrastructural alterations to the morphology, were assessed using scanning electron microscopy, and surface disruption to the cell wall structure of C. albicans by atomic force microscopy. The MIC and MFC values of eugenol were found to be 1.0% v/v, while the PIDG was dose dependent. Eugenol influenced cell growth and was fungicidal towards C. albicans. Eugenol was also found to encourage cell leakage, causing the release of cellular material, and to increase cell permeability. The ultrastructure and cell surface morphology were also altered by the presence of eugenol. Thus, eugenol was found to disrupt the cell wall of C. albicans.

The N-Linked Outer Chain Mannans and the Dfg5p and Dcw1p Endo-α-1,6-Mannanases Are Needed for Incorporation of Candida albicans Glycoproteins into the Cell Wall.

A biochemical pathway for the incorporation of cell wall protein into the cell wall of Neurospora crassa was recently proposed. In this pathway, the DFG-5 and DCW-1 endo-α-1,6-mannanases function to covalently cross-link cell wall protein-associated N-linked galactomannans, which are structurally related to the yeast outer chain mannans, into the cell wall glucan-chitin matrix. In this report, we demonstrate that the mannosyltransferase enzyme Och1p, which is needed for the synthesis of the N-linked outer chain mannan, is essential for the incorporation of cell wall glycoproteins into the Candida albicans cell wall. Using endoglycosidases, we show that C. albicans cell wall proteins are cross-linked into the cell wall via their N-linked outer chain mannans. We further demonstrate that the Dfg5p and Dcw1p α-1,6-mannanases are needed for the incorporation of cell wall glycoproteins into the C. albicans cell wall. Our results support the hypothesis that the Dfg5p and Dcw1p α-1,6-mannanases incorporate cell wall glycoproteins into the C. albicans cell wall by cross-linking outer chain mannans into the cell wall glucan-chitin matrix.

Mannoproteins from yeast and hyphal form of Candida albicans considerably differ in mannan and protein content

Significant differences in carbohydrate composition of mannoproteins obtained from yeast and hyphal cell walls of Candida albicans (serotypes A and B) were found. Yeast mannoproteins from both serotypes consisted up to 46% of mannan while the same parts from hyphal cells contained only about 14% of mannan. Another difference was in protein content, 47–53% for yeasts, 3–4.5% for hyphae, respectively. Moreover, HPLC profiles of yeast mannoproteins were more complex compared to those of hyphal form. Subsequently, mannans were prepared from yeast and hyphal mannoproteins using cetavlon fractionation. Mannans from both yeast serotypes contained higher amounts of mannose (91.4% serotype A; 92.8% serotype B) than mannans from hyphae (66.4% serotype A; 76.3% serotype B). Unlike mannans from serotype B, mannans from serotype A contained β-(1→2)-linked mannopyranosyl units in acid-stable moiety. Further, hyphal mannans were less branched than yeast mannans. The shift from yeast to hyphal form probably led to simplification of mannan structure.

DODAB:monoolein liposomes containing Candida albicans cell wall surface proteins: A novel adjuvant and delivery system

We describe the preparation and characterization of DODAB:MO-based liposomes and demonstrate their adjuvant potential and use in antigen delivery. Liposomes loaded with Candida albicans proteins assembled as stable negatively charged spherical nanoparticles with a mean size of 280nm. High adsorption efficiency (91.0±9.0%) is attained with high lipid concentrations. The nanoparticles were non-toxic, avidly taken up by macrophage cells and accumulated in membrane rich regions with an internalization time of 20min. Immunized mice displayed strong humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, producing antibodies (IgGs) against specific cell wall proteins, Cht3p and Xog1p. DODAB:MO-based liposomes loaded with C. albicans proteins have an excellent immunogenic potential and can be explored for the development of an immunoprotective strategy against Candida infections.

MTOR- and HIF-1α-mediated aerobic glycolysis as metabolic basis for trained immunity.

Epigenetic reprogramming of myeloid cells, also known as trained immunity, confers nonspecific protection from secondary infections. Using histone modification profiles of human monocytes trained with the Candida albicans cell wall constituent β-glucan, together with a genome-wide transcriptome, we identified the induced expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism. Trained monocytes display high glucose consumption, high lactate production, and a high ratio of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) to its reduced form (NADH), reflecting a shift in metabolism with an increase in glycolysis dependent on the activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) through a dectin-1-Akt-HIF-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α) pathway. Inhibition of Akt, mTOR, or HIF-1α blocked monocyte induction of trained immunity, whereas the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase activator metformin inhibited the innate immune response to fungal infection. Mice with a myeloid cell-specific defect in HIF-1α were unable to mount trained immunity against bacterial sepsis. Our results indicate that induction of aerobic glycolysis through an Akt-mTOR-HIF-1α pathway represents the metabolic basis of trained immunity.

JNK is critical for the development of Candida albicans-induced vascular lesions in a mouse model of Kawasaki disease.

Kawasaki disease (KD) is the most common systemic vasculitis of unknown etiology in children, and can cause the life-threatening complication of coronary artery aneurysm. Although a novel treatment strategy for patients with KD-caused vascular lesions is eagerly awaited, their molecular pathogenesis remains largely unknown. c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is a signaling molecule known to have roles in inflammation and tissue remodeling. The aim of this study was to elucidate significant involvement of JNK in the development of vascular lesions in a mouse model of KD. We injected Candida albicans cell wall extract (CAWE) into 4-week-old C57BL/6 mice. Macroscopically, we found that CAWE caused the development of bulging lesions at coronary artery, carotid artery, celiac artery, iliac artery and abdominal aorta. Histological examination of coronary artery and abdominal aorta in CAWE-treated mice showed marked inflammatory cell infiltration, destruction of elastic lamellae, loss of medial smooth muscle cells and intimal thickening, which are similar to histological features of vascular lesions of patients with KD. To find the role of JNK in lesion formation, we evaluated the effects of JNK inhibitor, SP600125, on abdominal aortic lesions induced by CAWE. Interestingly, treatment with SP600125 significantly decreased the incidence of lesions and also protected against vascular inflammation and tissue destruction histologically, compared with the placebo treatment. Our findings suggest that JNK is crucial for the development of CAWE-induced vascular lesions in mice, and potentially represents a novel therapeutic target for KD.

Masking of β(1-3)-glucan in the cell wall of Candida albicans from detection by innate immune cells depends on phosphatidylserine.

The virulence of Candida albicans in a mouse model of invasive candidiasis is dependent on the phospholipids phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Disruption of the PS synthase gene CHO1 (i.e., cho1Δ/Δ) eliminates PS and blocks the de novo pathway for PE biosynthesis. In addition, the cho1Δ/Δ mutant's ability to cause invasive disease is severely compromised. The cho1Δ/Δ mutant also exhibits cell wall defects, and in this study, it was determined that loss of PS results in decreased masking of cell wall β(1-3)-glucan from the immune system. In wild-type C. albicans, the outer mannan layer of the wall masks the inner layer of β(1-3)-glucan from exposure and detection by innate immune effector molecules like the C-type signaling lectin Dectin-1, which is found on macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. The cho1Δ/Δ mutant exhibits increases in exposure of β(1-3)-glucan, which leads to greater binding by Dectin-1 in both yeast and hyphal forms. The unmasking of β(1-3)-glucan also results in increased elicitation of TNF-α from macrophages in a Dectin-1-dependent manner. The role of phospholipids in fungal pathogenesis is an emerging field, and this is the first study showing that loss of PS in C. albicans results in decreased masking of β(1-3)-glucan, which may contribute to our understanding of fungus-host interactions.

Synthesis of antifungal vaccines by conjugation of β-1,2 trimannosides with T-cell peptides and covalent anchoring of neoglycopeptide to tetanus toxoid

Selective strategies for the construction of novel three component glycoconjugate vaccines presenting Candida albicans cell wall glycan (β-1,2 mannoside) and polypeptide fragments on a tetanus toxoid carrier are described. The first of two conjugation strategies employed peptides bearing an N-terminal thiopropionyl residue for conjugation to a trisaccharide equipped with an acrylate linker and a C-terminal S-acetyl thioglycolyl moiety for subsequent linking of neoglycopeptide to bromoacetylated tetanus toxoid. Michael addition of acrylate trisaccharides to peptide thiol under mildly basic conditions gave a mixture of N- and C- terminal glyco-peptide thioethers. An adaptation of this strategy coordinated S-acyl protection with anticipated thioester exchange equilibria. This furnished a single chemically defined fully synthetic neoglycopeptide conjugate that could be anchored to a tetanus toxoid carrier and avoids the introduction of exogenous antigenic groups. The second strategy retained the N-terminal thiopropionyl residue but replaced the C-terminal S-acetate functionality with an azido group that allowed efficient, selective formation of neoglycopeptide thioethers and subsequent conjugation of these with propargylated tetanus toxoid, but introduced potentially antigenic triazole linkages.

Identification ofCandida albicanswall mannoproteins covalently linked by disulphide and/or alkali-sensitive bridges

This paper describes the results obtained by analysing the human pathogen Candida albicans cell wall subproteome by mass spectrometry, using extraction procedures aimed at releasing proteins bound by disulphide bridges (RAE-CWP) or alkali-labile ester linkages (ALS-CWP). Ten of the total proteins released from the wall by β-ME and/or NaOH contained a potential signal peptide, lacked a GPI cell wall hydrophobic C-terminal domain and were identified as true wall proteins by in silico analysis, whereas four additional proteins were identified as bound to the plasma membrane. The results surprisingly demonstrated that, in addition to the expected RAE-CWP and ALS-CWP proteins, 16 GPI proteins were bound to the wall by disulphide or alkali-sensitive bonds, since they were released by β-ME and/or NaOH. The biological significance of these results is discussed in relation to the added complexity of the organization of the proteins in the C. albicans cell wall.

Participation of Candida albicans Transcription Factor RLM1 in Cell Wall Biogenesis and Virulence

Candida albicans cell wall is important for growth and interaction with the environment. RLM1 is one of the putative transcription factors involved in the cell wall integrity pathway, which plays an important role in the maintenance of the cell wall integrity. In this work we investigated the involvement of RLM1 in the cell wall biogenesis and in virulence. Newly constructed C. albicans Δ/Δrlm1 mutants showed typical cell wall weakening phenotypes, such as hypersensitivity to Congo Red, Calcofluor White, and caspofungin (phenotype reverted in the presence of sorbitol), confirming the involvement of RLM1 in the cell wall integrity. Additionally, the cell wall of C. albicans Δ/Δrlm1 showed a significant increase in chitin (213%) and reduction in mannans (60%), in comparison with the wild-type, results that are consistent with cell wall remodelling. Microarray analysis in the absence of any stress showed that deletion of RLM1 in C. albicans significantly down-regulated genes involved in carbohydrate catabolism such as DAK2, GLK4, NHT1 and TPS1, up-regulated genes involved in the utilization of alternative carbon sources, like AGP2, SOU1, SAP6, CIT1 or GAL4, and genes involved in cell adhesion like ECE1, ALS1, ALS3, HWP1 or RBT1. In agreement with the microarray results adhesion assays showed an increased amount of adhering cells and total biomass in the mutant strain, in comparison with the wild-type. C. albicans mutant Δ/Δrlm1 strain was also found to be less virulent than the wild-type and complemented strains in the murine model of disseminated candidiasis. Overall, we showed that in the absence of RLM1 the modifications in the cell wall composition alter yeast interaction with the environment, with consequences in adhesion ability and virulence. The gene expression findings suggest that this gene participates in the cell wall biogenesis, with the mutant rearranging its metabolic pathways to allow the use of alternative carbon sources.