Cedrus Deodara Research Articles

Toxicity assessment of Cedrus deodara oil compared to carbosulfan for Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) adults

Toxicity assessment of Cedrus deodara oil compared to carbosulfan for Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) adults

Survey, Pathogenicity and Molecular Characterization of Root Pathogens Associated with Root Rot of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don in District Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

Root rot disease is one of the most serious diseases that significantly reduces the plant's productivity, commonly known as collar rot, foot rot, or damping off. The main symptom of this condition is damping off. The newly emerging seedlings collapse and die in areas with severe infection, and the majority of seedlings may die before or after emergence. Due to Root rot disease in C. Deodara which is our state tree, the damage caused by it to the seedlings there was urgent need to identify and study the disease so as to develop proper management strategies. In Himachal Pradesh, a field survey was carried out to know the disease incidence of root rot pathogen in the Cedrus growing regions in district Solan. The survey included the Kanaghat, Solan, and Chail mountains. The Kandaghat range covered Kiari, Karol, and Bisha nurseries, the Solan range Shilli, Nauni nurseries, and the Chail range Chiunth, Chail, and Gaura nurseries were all covered. During the survey of root rot pathogen of Cedrus deodara, 10.90 to 62.15%incidence was recorded in district Solan nurseries. Maximum incidence of the root rot was recorded in Kandaghat range (37.35%) followed by Solan range (33.85%) and Chail range (30.93%), respectively. Amongst nurseries found that,Bisha nursery had maximum incidence (62.15%) followed by Nauni (48.46%) and Chiunth nurseries (44.65), respectively. Cultural and morphological characteristics of root rot pathogen were studied and identified as Rhizoctonia solani. ITS1/ITS4 markers were employed for the molecular identification of the pathogen that caused the root rot in Cedrus deodara, which was confirmed to be binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-E. For the root rot pathogen, isolation frequency was also observed in three solan ranges. Isolation frequency of Chail range comprising of two ranges showed the maximum of 37.71%followed by Kandaghat (34.42%) and Solan (19.37%), respectively. Numerous pathogens were isolated, however, three pathogen, binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-E, Fusarium oxysporum, and Phoma exigua were found to occur most frequently. Binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-E was the most often isolated of the three primary pathogens, occurring at a maximum frequency of 50.23%, followed by P. exigua (18.98%) and F. oxysporum (7.49%). Three different methods were used to test the pathogenicity of binucleate Rhizoctonia AG -E for their ability to produce root rot symptoms. The soil infestation inoculation method recorded the highest disease incidence (83.48%) followed by the root dip (34.53%) and stem application (23.76%), respectively.

Regional tree-ring oxygen isotope deduced summer monsoon drought variability for Kumaun-Gharwal Himalaya

The precipitation in the Kumaun-Gharwal (Uttarakhand) Himalaya (KGH) is predominantly regulated by the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) and has been declining over the last century. However, because of limited historical data, it is difficult to place this recent decreasing trend in the context of pre-anthropogenic influences and understand a fuller range of hydroclimate scenarios for the region. Thus, we developed a 508-year regional tree-ring stable oxygen isotope (δ18OTR) record for multiple coniferous taxa (Abies spectabilis, Cedrus deodara and Picea smithiana) for the KGH, which spanned 1508–2015 CE. The δ18OTR record explained 35.8% of instrumental June–August Palmer Drought Severity Index (JJAPDSI) variance modelled from a nearby meteorological station. The JJAPDSI reconstruction shows regional coherency with both instrumental and proxy-based independent hydroclimatic records providing confidence that it is a reliable proxy to assess the long term hydroclimatic variability of the region. We identified decreasing strength of JJAPDSI reconstruction in KGH during recent decades indicating intensified drought. This is in the context of pre-anthropogenic influences and understand a fuller range of hydroclimate scenarios for the region. The δ18OTR also has coherency with Pacific and Indian Ocean sea surface temperature variability illustrating the broader teleconnections that influence the regional hydroclimate.

In vitro and in silico validation of antibacterial potential of Pinus roxburghii and Cedrus deodara leaves’ extract against human pathogenic bacteria

The emergence of resistant pathogenic bacterial strains has threatened the human beings and already developed remedial measures. Based on the traditional herbal therapeutic history, present study is aimed to assess in vitro and in silico inhibition potential of leaves extracts of Pinus roxburghii and Cedrus deodara against human pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Hexane, methanol and acetone extracts of both plants were evaluated against above mentioned bacterial strains employing agar well diffusion technique. While docking analyses were performed to analyze the interaction of vital bioactive compounds and bacterial virulence proteins to get an idea about potential candidates for drug discovery. Both plant extracts exhibited greater antibacterial activities against S. aureus as compared to S. typhi and P. aeruginosa. The activity of different extracts also portrayed the role of polarity of solvent and compound to be extracted in each solvent i.e., activity of hexane extract > methanol > acetone with some variations. MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) values of P. roxburghii extracts were less than that of C. deodara against tested strains, while variation was observed in MBCs (minimum bactericidal concentrations). Furthermore, molecular docking of studied plants bioactive compounds and bacterial proteins showed strong interactions (binding affinity) i.e., taxifolin > nortrachelogenin > bisabolene > valencene > caryophyllene. Antibacterial efficiencies of P. roxburghii and C. deodara suggested their application as effective therapeutic agents against diseases caused by mentioned bacterial strains. In silico analysis suggests the isolation and usage of bioactive components as potential antibacterial agents/drugs after further experimentations on animals.

Mapping and Monitoring Forest Landscape Restoration Using Landsat-8 Images

In the context of the Bonn Challenge, Pakistan started Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) in 2014. This study assessed growth performance and the survival rate of young plantations and developed linear regression models by using Landsat-8 data. The results showed that fast-growing species such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Robinia pseudoacacia have shown a good growth rate as compared to Pinus roxburghii and Cedrus deodara. Landsat-8 vegetation indices include Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI), Difference Vegetation Index (DVI), and Green Normalized Vegetation Index (GNDVI), which were correlated with volume (m3). RVI has the highest correlation with R2 value of 0.88 followed by NDVI, SAVI, and GDVI with R2 value of 0.83. Stepwise linear regression (SLR) showed that MASVI and SAVI have a strong significant relationship with volume compared to the rest of the indices. The simple linear regression model of RVI and volume has the lowest RMSE (1.19 m3/ha) and is considered the best for plantation mapping. The temporal assessment of afforestation (2013-2018) by Landsat-8 images showed that the plantation was successful in the sampled sites. The RVI differencing and threshold measured area under vegetation was 7,309.7 ha in 2013 and was increased to 9,224.9 ha in 2018. The study suggested that Landsat-8 data have the potential for monitoring FLR activities and can be enhanced further when combined with other datasets.

Influence of vegetation types on soil physical and chemical properties, microbial biomass and stoichiometry in the central Himalaya

Soil physical and chemical properties and microbial biomass dynamics are significantly related to vegetation types. However, how different vegetation types influence the soil and microbial dynamics remains poorly understood. The aim of the present study is to assess the influence of vegetation types on soil physical properties (bulk density (BD), porosity, moisture, texture, and water holding capacity), chemical properties (soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC), and SOC, TN and TP stocks), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP), and stocks as well as soil and microbial biomass C: N: P stoichiometry within three soil depth (0–10 cm, 10–30 cm and 30–60 cm) in central Himalaya. Five vegetation types, namely oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) forest, Chir-pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forest, deodar (Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G.Don) forest, Sal (Shorea robusta (Roth) forest) and one was abandoned agricultural land was selected for the present study. Principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analyses were performed to evaluate the relationship among physical, chemical, and microbial characteristics and stoichiometry. ANOVA revealed significant differences in soil physical and chemical properties, microbial biomass, and stoichiometry due to vegetation types (P < 0.001), soil depths (P < 0.001), and vegetation types × soil depth interaction (P < 0.001). The results showed that the SOC, TN, TP, MBC, MBN, and MBP contents decreased with soil depths. MBC, MBN, and MBP contents were significantly and positively related to SOC, TN, and TP contents. Oak and deodar forests had the highest, SOC, TN, TP, MBC, MBN, and MBP contents, compared with other vegetation types. Sal forest soil (0–10 cm) had the highest SOC: TN, and SOC: TP ratios. Different vegetation types have different soil properties and stoichiometry, implying their different soil C, N, and P stocks. Thus our findings can help in developing a promising guideline for sustainable management strategies and soil management in long run.

Assessing Households’ Fuel Wood Sources and Tree Species Preference in Foot Hills of North-Western Himalayas

The present investigation was carried out, during the year 2019-2021 to investigate the primary sources and preferred species for fuelwood consumption among the local people of Kashmir Himalayas, India. The sample of study area was drawn by multi-stage random sampling technique. The data were collected through personal interviews of respondents using well-structured pre-tested interview schedule and non-participant observations. The study revealed that people extract enormous quantity of fuelwood mostly from forests and utilize maximum portion of extracted fuelwood for cooking and heating. Fuelwood collection was mainly done by women along with children. Winter season consumption was more than summer season consumption. Consumption of fuelwood was maximum at high elevation (&gt;2000m) and minimum at middle and low elevation (1900-2000m and &lt;1900m) respectively. Forests were the primary source of fuelwood resulting in huge pressure on forests thereby creating deforestation and degradation. A total of 12 species belonging to 8 families were found preferred species for fuelwood. Cedrus deodara, Salix spp., Populus spp. and Robinia pseudoacacia was the most preferred species while the Picea smithiana, Ailanthus altissima and Aesculus indica was the least preferred species.

First report of Megacollybia platyphylla (Marasmiaceae) from India based on morphology and molecular phylogenetic inferences

AbstractIn the present communication, a species of Megacollybia (M. platyphylla) belonging to the family Marasmiaceae has been described and illustrated for the first time in the Indian mycobiota. This is a lignicolous species found on the dead tree trunks of Cedrus deodara from the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. Here, we investigated the identity of M. platyphylla based on detailed morphology and nrITS‐based phylogeny.

Epiphytic Bryodiversity of Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Forest at Lohaghat (Champawat), Uttarakhand

The present bryoexploratory study deals with the documentation of epiphytic bryophytes species and communities flourishing on the Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don phorophytes at Lohaghat. The study site is located near the bank of Lohawati River, with an altitudinal range of 1600-1754 m at the North-East aspect of district Champawat. A total of 42 bryotaxa were recognized from the acidic (pH 4.20 - 4.74) bark of C. deodara phorophytes of varied girth classes ranging from saplings to giant ones. In all, 09 leafy liverworts and 33 mosses were recorded, belonging to 27 families. Amongst leafy liverworts, Frullaniaceae turned out to be the dominant family followed by Lejeuneaceae. Two species of Frullania viz., F. benjaminiana Inoue and F. udarii V. Nath &amp; Ajit P. Singh have been identified as new records for Western Himalayas. Pleurocarpous epiphytic mosses were found to dominate over the acrocarpous ones. Pylaisiadelpha capillacea (Griff.) B.C. Tan &amp; Y. Jia, (Pylaisiadelphaceae) is identified as a new record for Western Himalayan moss flora. The members of the family Meteoriaceae and Anomodontaceae were recognized as the dominant pleurocarps. Amongst acrocarpous mosses, the family Bryaceae was noticed as the most diversified epiphytes. Morphologically, the majority of epiphytic bryophytes were found to be mat-forming followed by the tuft. Leafy liverworts namely Lophocolea minor Nees and Radula complanata (L.) Dum., as well as the mosses viz., Brothera leana (Sull.) Mull. Hal. and Pylaisiadelpha capillacea emerged as gemmiferous. The north and south aspects of the forest site were discovered to have the highest species richness. The water trickling site of the tree trunks, junction of the broad branches, humus accumulated areas, as well as giant tree bases, were observed to be the suitable habitat and microhabitats for the colonization of epiphytic bryophytes on Cedar phorophytes. The present study will provide firm bases for comparative and quantitative bryosociological investigations and would be useful to future workers.

Comparative Standardization Study of Ayurvedic Formulations of Gokshuradi Churna

Background: The knowledge of plant based medicines was gradually developed by the primeval persons and was passed on to generations by trial and error basis without proper scientific evaluation, safety and toxicological studies. The discovery and acceptance of natural therapies in the past decades has been increasing in both developing and developed countries. Consumers buy herbal products without a prescription through online. Thus standardization is required with systematic approach and well-designed methodologies to maintain uniformity between batches during production of herbal products. The present work aims for the comparative standardization of the marketed formulation and two in-house prepared Gokshuradi Churna. It is an ayurvedic formulation prescribed for inflammation, arthritis, and other joint disorders. Gokshuradi Churna consists of powdered mixture of herbal drugs in equal proportions: the fruits of Tribulus terrestris, the fruits of Terminalia chebula, the root of Boerhaavia diffusa, the wood of Cedrus deodara, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, and the bulb of Allium sativum. Materials and Methods: The churna was standardized on the basis of the parameters like organoleptic characters, physical characters, physicochemical properties, phytochemical screening. Results: The parameters studied were within standard limits and the quality of the products were established. The results obtained may be considered as reference standards for developing standard formulation. Conclusion: From preliminary studies, it confirms that In house and marketed formulations of Gokshuradi Churna is safe for therapeutic use. Further studies has to be done to confirm the pharmacological activities of the churna.

Understanding Consumers’ Perceptions of Wood Quality Assessment in Multan, Punjab, Pakistan

Quality assessment regarding purchase of wood and wood-based products is inevitable to protect consumers for incurring losses. The present research was focused to enable consumer to assess quality woods. Questionnaire containing qualitative and quantitative information were prepared and face-to-face interviews were conducted. Respondents were selected by using purposive sampling technique. Data was gathered from 120 respondents, operating in Multan city, Punjab, Pakistan, and analyzed using SPSS-21 software. The study was conducted using survey research which is accomplished in three steps namely (1) questionnaires were assembled; (2) respondents were selected using purposive sampling and kept sample size as 120; (3) interviews were conducted using a well-constructed questionnaire containing wealth of quantitative and quantitative information. Variables used for quality assessment were durability, resistance to splitting, elasticity, hardness, color and weight. Results revealed that regarding choice of species for furniture making, Dalbergia sissoo and Cedrus deodara were equally most preferred species while Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Mangifera indica were least preferred based on perceived quality assessment indicators. Wood design is perceived as more effective factor in choice of wooden furniture. Respondents’ self-reports identified wood breakage as main problem mostly occurred between 2-10 years of furniture use and furniture replacement followed by repair and polish are reported as possible solutions. Regarding safety and economic use, trucks were considered efficient in wood transportation especially in bulk quantity and for transportation to shorter distances, motor cart remained preferred for economic reasons. It was concluded to develop wood quality standards for raw wood and furniture for easy choice for quality woods and furniture.

Mask Region-Based Convolutional Neural Network (R-CNN) Based Image Segmentation of Rays in Softwoods

The current study aimed to verify the image segmentation ability of rays in tangential thin sections of conifers using artificial intelligence technology. The applied model was Mask region-based convolutional neural network (Mask R-CNN) and softwoods (viz. Picea jezoensis, Larix gmelinii, Abies nephrolepis, Abies koreana, Ginkgo biloba, Taxus cuspidata, Cryptomeria japonica, Cedrus deodara, Pinus koraiensis) were selected for the study. To take digital pictures, thin sections of thickness 10–15 μm were cut using a microtome, and then stained using a 1:1 mixture of 0.5% astra blue and 1% safranin. In the digital images, rays were selected as detection objects, and Computer Vision Annotation Tool was used to annotate the rays in the training images taken from the tangential sections of the woods. The performance of the Mask R-CNN applied to select rays was as high as 0.837 mean average precision and saving the time more than half of that required for Ground Truth. During the image analysis process, however, division of the rays into two or more rays occurred. This caused some errors in the measurement of the ray height. To improve the image processing algorithms, further work on combining the fragments of a ray into one ray segment, and increasing the precision of the boundary between rays and the neighboring tissues is required.

WOUND HEALING, ANTIMICROBIAL AND ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIALS OF CEDRUS DEODARA LOUD. AND PINUS ROXBURGHII SARG.

The aim of this study was to investigate wound healing, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Cedrus deodara and Pinus roxburghii. The chloroform extract of C. deodara was found to possess significant wound healing potential, as evident from the rate of wound contraction, epithelization and hydroxyproline expression. The chloroform extract of C. deodara also exhibited very good antimicrobial activity and a marked dose-dependent reducing power and total antioxidant activity. Furthermore, five sesquiterpenes, namely, atlantone, himaphenolone, atlantolone, deodardione, and (E)-(2S, 3S, 6R)-atlantone-2, 3-diol, were also identified from this extract. A marked dose-dependent reducing power and strong total antioxidant capacity were found in favor of himaphenolone and (E)-(2S, 3S, 6R)-atlantone-2, 3-diol that explain the possible means of activity. The chloroform extract of C. deodara showed the wound healing, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities primarily due to the presence of sesquiterpenes. This study showed a scientific rationale for the traditional use of C. deodara and P. roxburghii

Beyond the Bark: An Overview of the Chemistry and Biological Activities of Selected Bark Essential Oils.

Essential oils have been used by indigenous peoples for medicinal purposes since ancient times. Their easy availability played an important role. Even today, essential oils are used in various fields-be it as aromatic substances in the food industry, as an aid in antibiotic therapy, in aromatherapy, in various household products or in cosmetics. The benefits they bring to the body and health are proven by many sources. Due to their complex composition, they offer properties that will be used more and more in the future. Synergistic effects of various components in an essential oil are also part of the reason for their effectiveness. Infectious diseases will always recur, so it is important to find active ingredients for different therapies or new research approaches. Essential oils extracted from the bark of trees have not been researched as extensively as from other plant components. Therefore, this review will focus on bringing together previous research on selected bark oils to provide an overview of barks that are economically, medicinally, and ethnopharmaceutically relevant. The bark oils described are Cinnamomum verum, Cedrelopsis grevei, Drypetes gossweileri,&amp;nbsp;Cryptocarya massoy, Vanillosmopsis arborea and Cedrus deodara. Literature from various databases, such as Scifinder, Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed, among others, were used.

Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Emulgel Loaded with Extract of Cedrus deodara for its In-Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Ayurveda is the base of Indian Systems of Medicine. The researchers are greatly interested in discovering the potential of natural bioactive components. Remedial effects are produced by different plant extracts. Cedrus deodara is found in North India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tibet and Nepal. It contains deodarin, cedodarin, taxifolin, myrcene, iso-pimpillin, α-pinene, β-pinene, cedrin, deodarone, sesquiterpene, cedrinoside, dihydromyricetin, matairesinol, atlantone. It is used in treatment of inflammation, ulcer, pain, hyperglycemia, infection, insomnia, skin disorder, blood disorder, apoptosis, fever. Recently in-vivo and in-vitro studies have indicated its anti-inflammatory and analgesic property. The objectives of proposed research work are to formulate and evaluate the herbal emulgel loaded with extract ofCedrus deodara and evaluate for its In-Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity. Cedrus deodara heartwood was extracted using hydro-alcoholic solvent. Phytochemical evaluation of extract was done. Six batches of herbal emulgel were formulated. The prepared herbal emulgel was evaluated for pH, spreadability, viscosity, consistency, appearance, color, washability and appearance. In-vitro anti-inflammatory activity of extract and formulation were done using HRBC Membrane stabilization assay and protein denaturation assay. The proposed research work concludes that the newly formulated herbal emulgel loaded with extract of Cedrus deodara can be used in future for anti-inflammatory effect.

Variations in Sap Flux Density of Three Urban Tree Species and Their Main Environmental Influencing Factors in Different Timescales in the Beijing Metropolitan Area

Despite the importance of landscape design and water-resources management for urban planning, urban-forest transpiration was seldom estimated in situ. Detailed data on different urban trees’ water resource use and the effect of climatic fluctuations on their transpiration behaviour in different timescales are limited. In this study, we used a thermal dissipation method to measure the sap flux density (Js) of three urban tree species (Pinus tabulaeformis Carrière, Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don, and Robinia pseudoacacia Linn.) from 1 May 2008 to 30 April 2016 in Beijing Teaching Botanical Garden. The effects of environmental factors on sap flux density (Js) in different timescales were also analyzed. The results showed that there were significant differences in the sap flux density of three trees species in daily, seasonal, and interannual timescales. The hourly, seasonal, and interannual mean sap flux density of Pinus tabulaeformis were higher than that of Cedrus deodara and Robinia pseudoacacia. The seasonal mean Js of Pinus tabulaeformis, Cedrus deodara, and Robinia pseudoacacia in summer were 18.67, 16.19, and 41.62 times that in winter over 2008–2015. The annual mean sap flux density of Pinus tabulaeformis was 1.25–1.72 and 1.26–1.82 times that Cedrus deodara and Robinia pseudoacacia over 2008–2015. The Js responses in three tree species to environmental factors varied differently from daily to interannual timescales. The pattern of day-to-day variation in Js of three urban tree species corresponded closely to air temperature (Ta), soil temperature (Ts), solar radiation (Rs), and vapor pressure deficit (VPD). The Jarvis–Stewart model based on Ta, Rs, and VPD was more suitable for the sap flux density simulation of Pinus tabulaeformis than Cedrus deodara and Robinia pseudoacacia. The main factor affecting the sap flux density of Pinus tabulaeformis and Cedrus deodara was Ta in seasonal timescales. However, the main factor affecting the sap flux density of Robinia pseudoacacia was Ts. The interannual variations in the Js of Pinus tabulaeformis and Robinia pseudoacacia were mainly influenced by wind speed (w) and soil water content (SWC), respectively. The selected environmental factors could not explain the variation in the sap flux density of Cedrus deodara in an interannual timescale. The findings of the present study could provide theoretical support for predicting the water consumption of plant transpiration under the background of climate change in the future.

Life cycle environmental sustainability and cumulative energy assessment of biomass pellets biofuel derived from agroforest residues.

This study was carried out to produce low-emitting biomass pellets biofuel from selected forest trees such as (Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana) and agricultural crop residues such as (Zea mays and Triticum aestivum) in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan using indigenously developed technology called pelletizer machine. Characterization, environmental life cycle impact assessment, and cumulative energy demand of biomass pellets biofuel produced from selected agriculture crops and forest tree residues were conducted. The primary data for biomass pellets production was collected by visiting various wood processing factories, sawmills, and agricultural crop fields in the study area. Biomass pellets are a type of biofuel that is often made by compressing sawdust and crushing biomass material into a powdery form. The particles are agglomerated as the raw material is extensively compressed and pelletized. Biomass pellets have lower moisture content, often less than 12%. Physically, the produced pellets were characterized to determine moisture content, pellet dimensions, bulk density, higher heating value, ash content, lower heating value, and element analysis. A functional unit of one kilogram (kg) biomass pellets production was followed in this study.The life cycle impact assessment of one kg biomass pellets biofuel produced from selected agro-forest species revealed environmental impact categories such as acidification (0.006 kg SO2 eq/kg pellets), abiotic depletion (0.018 kg Sb eq/kg pellets), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (417.803 kg 1,4-DB eq/kg pellets), human toxicity (1.107 kg 1,4-DB eq/kg pellets), freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity (0.191 kg 1,4-DB eq/kg pellets), eutrophication (0.001 kg PO4 eq/kg pellets), global warming (0.802 kg CO2 eq/kg pellets), and terrestrial ecotoxicity (0.008 kg 1,4-DB eq/kg pellets). Fossil fuel consumption was the hotspot source to all environmental impacts investigated. To measure the cumulative energy demand of biomass pellets made from different agroforestry species leftovers showed that the maximum cumulative energy was from wheat straw pellets (13.737 MJ), followed by corncob pellets (11.754 MJ), deodar sawdust pellets (10.905 MJ) and blue pine sawdust pellets (10.877 MJ). Among the various production activities, collection and transportation of primary raw material, crushing, screening, adding adhesives, pelletizing, cooling, final screening, and packing have the maximum contribution to the water scarcity index, followed by lubricating oil (0.00147m3). In contrast, the minimum contribution to water footprint was from electricity (0.00008m3) and wheat starch (0.00005m3). The highest contribution to the ecological footprint impact categories such as carbon dioxide, nuclear, and land occupation was lubricating oil and less contribution of wheat starch and electricity for manufacturing one kg pellets biofuel. It is concluded that physico-mechanical and combustion properties of the biomass pellets biofuel developed in the present study were following the Italian recommended standards. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that the Government of Pakistan should introduce the renewable biomass pellets industry in the country to reduce dependency on fossil fuels for cooking and heating purposes.

Vegetation dynamics and soil nutrient availability in a temperate forest along altitudinal gradient of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya, India.

This study examined forest structure, composition, and regeneration patterns of two sites, Tolma-Lata-Raini (TLR) and Bhyundar-Ghangaria (BG). Both sites are located within the temperate zone along the altitudinal gradient between 2,800 to 3,400 m asl of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) in the Western Himalayan Region of India. We recorded a total of 223 species of vascular plants (Angiosperm, Gymnosperm, and Pteridophytes) within the study area. Of the recorded species, plants within the family Rosaceae were dominant (17.69%), followed by Asteraceae (14.97%) and Ranunculaceae (12.93%). Betula utilis had the highest tree density (724 and 324 individuals ha-1) and species cover (44% and 36%) at both TLR and BG sites, followed by Pinus wallichiana (24%) and Cedrus deodara (15%), respectively. In BG site, 56% of tree species showed fair regeneration (i.e., seedling density > sapling density ≤ adult density), 22% good (i.e., seedling density > sapling density > adult tree density), 11% exhibited poor (i.e., species survived only in the sapling stage but not in the seedling stage), and the remaining (11%) indicated no regeneration. Comparatively, at TLR site, 40% of the tree species showed fair regeneration, 40% good, and the remaining 20% showed no regeneration. Across the two sites, species richness and diversity significantly decreased as the altitudinal gradient increased. Vegetation structure and soil properties also revealed differences between the southern and northern aspects. The baseline information generated in this study is helpful in designing effective conservation and management measures for these ecologically sensitive and important ecosystems. To effectively monitor changes in vegetation structure, species composition, and regeneration, we suggest that permanent vegetation plots with meteorological stations be established across the region for long-term monitoring of forest dynamics in response to the changing climate and anthropogenic pressures.

Thermal Modification and Alkyl Ketene Dimer Effects on the Surface Protection of Deodar Cedar (Cedrus deodara Roxb.) Wood

The aim of this research was to evaluate the multiple effects of both thermal modification and alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) on the deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara Roxb.) wood surface, before and after an irradiation test. The physical and chemical changes that occurred on the cedar wood samples due to the combined effect of these modifications were evaluated by measuring their wettability and colour and using attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses. The surface analysis by XPS showed the expected variability among the sampled layers for unmodified and thermally modified cedar wood samples and a uniform composition after the AKD coverage, regardless of their pre-treatments. The FTIR spectra before the irradiation test showed that the hydrophobicity of the samples was ensured by the formation of carbonyl groups originating from the reaction between the AKD and hydroxyl groups of cellulose, which is related to the presence of the absorption band between 1700 cm−1 and 1750 cm−1. Markedly, after the irradiation test, a degradation of the amorphous cellulose component occurred, showing that photoisomerisation to the enolic form took place. Overall, although uniform AKD coverage was derived from the surface analysis and wetting test, the combined ATR-FTIR results and colour measurements showed that it could not provide permanent protection to the underlying wood structure due to its own tendency to degrade mainly in colour over time, under the action of UV rays and atmospheric agents.

Forest Land Encroachment in Kehmil Forest Division of Kupwara District: Dimensions, Causes and Consequences.

This research aims to identify the areas under encroachment and its causes and consequences in the Kehmil forest division of the district of Kupwara in Jammu and Kashmir. The survey was conducted for two consecutive years during September 2020 to November 2020 and September 2021 to November 2021. The study area is dominated by (Himalayan dry-temperate to subalpine forest types). Cedrus deodar, Pinus excelsa, and Abies pindrow are the species in the Kupwara region with the highest importance value (IV). For data collection, direct observations of the encroached site, interviews and opinion of the locals, literature studies and analysis were done. The study area of 546.89 hectare land was encroached by 2178 encroachers. It was determined that the encroached area's agricultural system is a dry land one with horticultural crops as its primary plant types. The main reason for forest encroachment by the population is relatively huge such as rise in population and unemployment, restrictions on agricultural land and forest guard forces. Due to forest encroachment, the abolition of forest plant species in study area has altered the expected ranking of tree species identified in the undisturbed forest. Based on the present study, it is concluded that there is a need of extensive land-use regulations at the national and municipal levels to stop future deforestation by well-built protections for the remaining forest land in the Kehmil forest division.