CDC Websites Research Articles

Factors responsible for the re-emergence of Monkeypox and implications for global health

The eradication of smallpox in 1980 and the subsequent discontinuation of smallpox vaccination have resulted in a decline in immunity against orthopoxviruses. As a result, Monkeypox (Mpox) has reappeared as a significant virus with implications for public health. This article aims to determine some of the factors responsible for the re-emergence of Mpox and its implications for global health. A thorough literature search for this present article was conducted through a search of databases and journals, including the WHO and CDC websites, using keywords such as “Monkeypox”, “Re-emergence”, “Prevalence”, “Risk factors”, “Implications” and “Global Health” to find articles published from 2003 to 2023. We found that Mpox recently occurred in several countries in America, Europe, and Asia, including the United States of America (USA), Brazil, Spain, Colombia, Mexico, the United Kingdom (UK), Germany, and Pakistan, between 2022 and 2023. The rise in Mpox cases was also seen, with incidences documented in Western Europe (2599 cases, accounting for 42.76% of the total), Southern Europe (1932 cases, representing 31.79% of the total), Northern Europe (1487 cases, comprising 24.46% of the total), and Eastern Europe (59 cases, making up 0.97% of the total). Possible factors implicated in the re-emergence of MPOX include; the expansion of the human population, increased same sexual intercourse, and poor epidemiological surveillance. etc. The re-emergence of Mpox in the world is a difficult issue that requires world leaders to take a diverse approach to control the disease. World leaders and scientists must pursue natural compounds with antiviral properties. Hopefully, natural products will give alternate therapy alternatives for preventing infection transmission between humans and limiting virus proliferation in host organisms.

Where Are the Children? A Thematic Analysis of State, Territory, and Tribal Organization Comprehensive Cancer Control Plans

BackgroundThe Center for Disease Control's Comprehensive Cancer Control Program (CCCP) funds initiatives in fifty states, the District of Columbia, seven U.S. territories, and seven tribal organizations to prevent and control cancer. These initiatives influence policy, care, research, and advocacy for cancer treatment. We performed an analysis of CCCP plans for states, U.S. territories, and tribal organizations to understand the extent of inclusion of pediatric cancer care. MethodsWe conducted a thematic and quantitative analysis of CCCP plans for states, U.S. territories, and tribal organizations. Plans were assessed by two reviewers and scored for discussion of cancer prevention, risk factors, early detection and screening, treatment and innovation, access, barriers to care, and survivorship in childhood cancer. ResultsPlans from fifty states, the District of Columbia, seven territories, seven tribal organizations, and one Pacific Regional (USAPI) plan were reviewed, for a total of sixty-six plans. Up-to-date CCCP plans were available through the CDC or state websites for 74% of states, 57% of territories, and 71% of tribal organizations; older plans were available for all groups without up-to-date CCCP plans. While all plans referenced children, most did so in the context of childhood exposures influencing adult cancer risks (e.g., sun, tobacco, HPV). Few plans contained a section dedicated to childhood cancer (30% states, 14.3% territories, 14.3% tribes). A minority of plans specifically discussed early detection and screening (14% states, 0% territories, 14.3% tribes), treatment and innovation (32% states, 0% territories, 28.6% tribes), access to cancer care (38% states, 28.6% territories, 28.6% tribes), reducing barriers to cancer care (28% states, 42.9% territories, 28.6% tribes), and pediatric cancer survivorship (42% states, 0% territories, 28.6% tribes). ConclusionsPromoting inclusion of pediatric cancer in CCPs will help to standardize pediatric cancer care, eliminate treatment disparities across state lines, and allow for comprehensive understanding of pediatric oncology. Level of EvidenceLevel IV.

MATERNAL MORTALITY IN INDIA: PREVENTION AND ITSSTRATEGIES

Introduction: Maternal health is an important aspect of any countrys development in terms of equity and poverty reduction. The health of women before and during pregnancy, during childbirth, and after childbirth is referred to as Maternal Health. The Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) is an important indicator of the quality of the countrys health-care system. India has made remarkable progress in reducing maternal mortality over the last two decades. Methods: Relevant articles were searched using both electronically and print sources. Electronically from search engines such as PubMed and Google Scholar, as well as the WHO, CDC, and MoHFW websites. Print sources for the database included newspapers, the central library, and the departmental library of the Community Medicine, which included a variety of journals and standard textbooks. The following keywords were used in the literature search: maternal health, maternal death, maternal mortality and vaccination for pregnant women. Articles that did not contain these keywords were excluded from consideration. The search was not limited by publication year, and original articles, review articles, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses were all considered. Recommendation:Early detection and timely management of High-Risk Pregnancy (HRP) are critical factors in reducing maternal mortality.

Global Infectious Diseases in December 2022: Monthly Analysis

The emergence and reoccurrence of infectious diseases constitute a significant threat to human health. Data for this paper were mainly obtained from official websites, such as the WHO and national CDC websites. The report summarizes and analyzes information on infectious diseases for early outbreak monitoring from 24 November to 23 December 2022. Monkeypox cases declined in December 2022 with few deaths, while cholera infections have increased in African regions and war-torn countries. Most sub-Saharan countries are affected by insect-borne diseases, such as dengue, Lassa, and chikungunya fever.

Monkeypox: A Re-emerging Viral Zoonotic Infection

Context: Monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection is a zoonotic disease, endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, but recently has re-emerged outside Africa and caused some concerns. Evidence Acquisition: The current study aimed to briefly present a narrative mini-review on different features of MPXV. Data were gathered from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and PubMed databases and also WHO and CDC websites, using ''Monkeypox'', ''Variola'', ''Bioterrorism'', and ''Bioweapon'' keywords. Results: Monkeypox virus is categorized into two genetic clades with different outcomes. The incubation period of infection is 5 - 21 days, and infection by Central African clade may lead to a clinical representation similar to smallpox with about 10% mortality rate. Monkeypox virus can infect a wide range of mammals, and its natural reservoir is almost unknown. It is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa and is rarely seen outside Africa. Its most reliable detection is based on nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs). Treatment is mainly supportive, and some selective drugs are developed for severe cases. Avoiding close contact with wild animals and infected patients is the first line of prevention. Prior vaccination with smallpox or MPX vaccines is also protective. Due to similar symptoms of human monkeypox and smallpox, it may be a candidate for bioterrorism. However, there is no evidence of recent intentional spread of MPXV. Conclusions: This study has tried to provide a summary of MPXV infection. Despite recent concerns, there is still a very low risk of the MPXV pandemic. However, it is recommended to be alert for such infection and provide essential readiness against it.

A Trans-Governmental Collaboration to Independently Evaluate SARS-CoV-2 Serology Assays.

ABSTRACTThe emergence of SARS-CoV-2 created a crucial need for serology assays to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, which led to many serology assays entering the market. A trans-government collaboration was created in April 2020 to independently evaluate the performance of commercial SARS-CoV-2 serology assays and help inform U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulatory decisions. To assess assay performance, three evaluation panels with similar antibody titer distributions were assembled. Each panel consisted of 110 samples with positive (n = 30) serum samples with a wide range of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers and negative (n = 80) plasma and/or serum samples that were collected before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Each sample was characterized for anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies against the spike protein using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Samples were selected for the panel when there was agreement on seropositivity by laboratories at National Cancer Institute’s Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research (NCI-FNLCR) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The sensitivity and specificity of each assay were assessed to determine Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) suitability. As of January 8, 2021, results from 91 evaluations were made publicly available (https://open.fda.gov/apis/device/covid19serology/, and https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/serology-surveillance/serology-test-evaluation.html). Sensitivity ranged from 27% to 100% for IgG (n = 81), from 10% to 100% for IgM (n = 74), and from 73% to 100% for total or pan-immunoglobulins (n = 5). The combined specificity ranged from 58% to 100% (n = 91). Approximately one-third (n = 27) of the assays evaluated are now authorized by FDA for emergency use. This collaboration established a framework for assay performance evaluation that could be used for future outbreaks and could serve as a model for other technologies.IMPORTANCE The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic created a crucial need for accurate serology assays to evaluate seroprevalence and antiviral immune responses. The initial flood of serology assays entering the market with inadequate performance emphasized the need for independent evaluation of commercial SARS-CoV-2 antibody assays using performance evaluation panels to determine suitability for use under EUA. Through a government-wide collaborative network, 91 commercial SARS-CoV-2 serology assay evaluations were performed. Three evaluation panels with similar overall antibody titer distributions were assembled to evaluate performance. Nearly one-third of the assays evaluated met acceptable performance recommendations, and two assays had EUAs revoked and were removed from the U.S. market based on inadequate performance. Data for all serology assays evaluated are available at the FDA and CDC websites (https://open.fda.gov/apis/device/covid19serology/, and https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/serology-surveillance/serology-test-evaluation.html).

COVID-19 Pandemic Impact on Essential Public Health Services and Online Health Communication-Appalachian Kentucky, March-December 2020.

The COVID-19 pandemic posed many challenges for local health departments (LHDs). This study examines how stay-at-home orders impacted the provision of essential public health services and subsequent increased use of online health communication by LHDs for rural populations in Appalachian Kentucky during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. A survey to gather information about provision of essential public health services was administered to five LHDs representing 13 counties between June 2020 and December 2020. Additionally, demographic and health-outcome data from LHD, state health department, and CDC websites were reviewed, alongside health communications posted on LHD social media pages. Using these data, the authors conducted descriptive analyses to assess how essential public health services and health communications were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. In Appalachian Kentucky, limited internet access was identified by all LHDs as the most common barrier for clients of essential public health services. During stay-at-home orders, the use of telehealth increased participation rates for programs that support parents for optimal growth and development of children. Additionally, social media was the most preferred media source by all LHDs to communicate with the local population to promote health education. By using publicly available data and conducting interviews with LHDs, alongside examination of the health information they posted online, the study is able to characterize the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on providing essential public health services-successes and challenges. Expanding use of telehealth for essential public health services and increased access to online health communication improves access to care and information for rural populations in Appalachian Kentucky.

COVID‐19‐Related Knowledge, Protective Behaviors and the Moderating Role of Primary Sources of Information: Findings from a Cross‐Sectional Online Survey in the United States

Research ObjectiveTo assess the moderating effects of primary sources of COVID‐19 information on the association between knowledge and protective behaviors against COVID‐19.Study DesignThis is a secondary analysis of data from a cross‐sectional online COVID‐19 survey conducted among US adults in April 2020 using advertisement‐based recruitment on social media. A total of 6518 people completed the survey. Linear regression analysis was performed on COVID‐19 knowledge and protective behavior scores. An interaction term between knowledge and primary source of information was included in order to examine any moderating effects of the information source on the relationship between knowledge and protective behaviors. The analysis was adjusted for demographic and socio‐economic factors and was conducted using R software (version 3.6.3).Population StudiedAdult population (age > 18) living in the United States.Principal FindingsOverall, higher level of COVID‐19‐related knowledge was associated with higher level of self‐reported engagement in protective behaviors. More specifically, our results indicate that the primary source of information modified the association between knowledge and protective behaviors. The most effective sources of information to translate incremental knowledge into higher engagement in protective behaviors were interpersonal communication and social media. Official sources such US government, CDC, and WHO websites had significantly weaker effects. Our results also showed that respondents with lower knowledge scores preferred social media or interpersonal communication as their primary source for seeking COVID‐19‐related information.ConclusionsThis study shows the important role that the different COVID‐19 information sources can play on influencing people's engagement in protective behaviors while delivering the COVID‐19‐related knowledge.Implications for Policy or PracticeOverflowing information and misinformation are influencing people's degree of engagement in protective behaviors against COVID‐19. Policy makers should carefully monitor the use of different information sources by the public so that they can effectively target, influence decision‐making, and promote behavior change to fight the current pandemic and the infodemic concurrently.

A Review of Prolonged Post-COVID-19 Symptoms and Their Implications on Dental Management.

The available data regarding the short and long-term consequences of COVID-19 is still insufficient. This narrative review aims to provide information on the prolonged COVID-19 symptoms in recovered patients and their implications during dental management. Additionally, this manuscript highlights the oral manifestations of COVID-19 and its management. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library and Web of Science databases, WHO and CDC websites, and grey literature was searched through Google Scholar. Clinical articles (clinical trials, case-reports, cohort, and cross-sectional studies) were included, reporting prolonged post-COVID-19 symptoms. Although COVID-19 is an infectious disease primarily affecting the lungs, its multi-organ involvement is responsible for several prolonged symptoms, including oral implications. In recovered patients with prolonged COVID-19 symptoms, considerations for providing dental treatment has to be made as they can present with assortment of symptoms. These prolonged post-COVID-19 symptoms can affect the delivery of the required dental treatment. Hence, the recommendations proposed in this narrative review can be a useful starting point to aid dental teams providing adequate care for such recovered patients.

Children’s Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome, Associated With a New Coronavirus Infection (COVID-19): Relevant Information and Clinical Observation

Background. New coronaviral infection (COVID-19) in most cases has less severe course in children than in adults. However, there were reports from the number of European countries and from United States (from March 2020) about children with new disease with signs of Kawasaki disease (KD) and toxic shock syndrome (TSS). So it has received one of the names children’s multisystem inflammatory syndrome (CMIS) associated with COVID-19. The aim of the study is to summarize up-to-date information about this disease.Methods. Information search in PubMed database, CDC (USA) and WHO websites, Search for information in PubMed database, on CDC (USA) and WHO websites, analysis of the medical records of observed patient with CMIS.Results. Clinical and laboratoryinstrumental manifestation and outcomes of CMIS in 120 children from Italy, France, Switzerland, England, USA with similar signs were analyzed. Proposed international diagnostic criteria of the disease in comparison with other phenotypically similar diseases (KD, shock syndrome at KD, TSS of Staphylococcal and Streptococcal etiology, macrophage activation syndrome), clinical observation of patient, algorithm of evaluation and management of patients with CMIS are presented.

CORONAVIRUS-A VIRUS IN LEARNING

Viruses can infect almost all the types of life forms, from animals, plants to microorganisms. They are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous types of biological entity. The present pandemic on Earth due to SARS COV 2, coronavirus has given a big jolt to the scientific community and created a deep curiosity in us to understand the virus and its interaction biochemically in humans. We did a small project by researching and compiling the information about its outbreak and host-pathogen interactions. To understand this pandemic COVID 19 and the virus, we as students learnt the structural morphology of virus and its role in the host-pathogen interaction. We used several online platforms for our study like PubMed, Scopus, WHO, ICMR and CDC Websites.

Optimized Forecasting Method for Weekly Influenza Confirmed Cases.

Influenza epidemic is a serious threat to the entire world, which causes thousands of death every year and can be considered as a public health emergency that needs to be more addressed and investigated. Forecasting influenza incidences or confirmed cases is very important to do the necessary policies and plans for governments and health organizations. In this paper, we present an enhanced adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) to forecast the weekly confirmed influenza cases in China and the USA using official datasets. To overcome the limitations of the original ANFIS, we use two metaheuristics, called flower pollination algorithm (FPA) and sine cosine algorithm (SCA), to enhance the prediction of the ANFIS. The proposed FPASCA-ANFIS is evaluated using two datasets collected from the CDC and WHO websites. Furthermore, it was compared to some previous state-of-the-art approaches. Experimental results confirmed that the FPASCA-ANFIS outperformed the compared methods using variant measures, including RMSRE, MAPE, MAE, and .

AGA Rapid Recommendations for Gastrointestinal Procedures During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Abbreviations used in this paper AGAAmerican Gastroenterological AssociationCDCCenters for Disease Control and PreventionCIconfidence intervalCOVID-19coronavirus disease 2019GIgastrointestinalGRADEGrading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and EvaluationMERS-CoVMiddle East respiratory syndrome–related coronavirusORodds ratioPAPRpowered air-purifying respiratorPPEpersonal protective equipmentRRrisk ratioSARS-CoV-2severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2WHOWorld Health Organization

The possibility of using Lopinave/Litonawe (LPV/r) as treatment for novel coronavirus 2019-nCov pneumonia: a quick systematic review based on earlier coronavirus clinical studies

Objective To explore the possibility of using Lopinave/Litonawe (LPV/r) as treatment for novel coronavirus 2019-nCov pneumonia by systematically review earlier coronavirus studies. Methods Systematically retrieve relevant clinical studies from Chinese and English databases such as CNKI,VIP, Wangfang Data,CBM,PubMed, Web of Science,EMBASE. In addition, information from Chinese bio-medical journals, WHO, US CDC, Chinese CDC websites and the references from published relevant articles were retrieved. The inclusion period is from January 2003 to January 24, 2020. The criteria for inclusion are: (1) studies that aim to compare LPV/r and placebo/standard for SARS, MERS; (2) studies that include at least one clinical outcome; (3) studies with diagnosis criteria meeting WHO requirement on SARS or MERS; (4) data from multiple reports but originated from one study, where we extract information from all reports; (5) guidelines, includes: national or academic guidelines/experts 'consensus. The exclude criteria are: 1) only have abstracts but no full information; 2) in vitro studies. Two reviewers independently review articles and extract data on study design, patients, diagnosis criteria, regimen, and clinical outcomes (mortality, morbidity, quality of life, steroids dosage, chest image and adverse responses). Results Two hundred and thirty potential article were found by screening, and narrow down to forty-four articles for evaluation and finally four studies were included. The results of included studies indicate the early use of LPV/r regimen can reduce the mortality of SARS and MERS, and reduce steroids dosing. Conclusions ILPV/r can be used as a component of experimental regimen for treat 2019-nCoV pneumonia. It strongly suggests that initiating real world studies to explore the true clinical effects of LPV/r on 2019-nCoV patients. Key words: 2019-nCoV; Lopinave/Litonawe (LPV/r); S`Anti-virus regimen; Systematical review; Real world study

The epidemiology of syphilis in Ethiopia: a protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis covering the last three decades

BackgroundSeveral individual epidemiological studies in Ethiopia suggest that syphilis is a public health problem. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no synthesized and meta-analysis data on the epidemiology of syphilis in Ethiopia. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to summarize and synthesize existing data on the prevalence of syphilis in Ethiopia.MethodStudies reporting the prevalence of syphilis will be identified from major databases and gray literature. The major databases (MEDLINE/PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, CINAHL, The Cochrane Library, Lilacs, and African journal online) and gray literature (Google Scholar search engine, official WHO and CDC websites, the online library of academic and governmental institutions in Ethiopia) will be searched. Studies published/reported from 1 January 1990 to 1 January 2019 will be included to have a contemporary estimation. A random-effect meta-analysis of prevalence will be used after stabilizing the variance of included studies using a single arc transformation. The quality of the included studies will be assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Meta-Analysis of Statistics Assessment and Review Instruments. Heterogeneity and publication bias will be assessed. If significant heterogeneity is detected, subgroup analysis will be done using study region, study population, diagnostic assay/syphilis screening tool, median sample size, year of data collection, study sites, sampling method, and methodological quality as grouping variables.DiscussionThis systematic review and meta-analysis intend to contribute an improved knowledge on the epidemiology of syphilis in Ethiopia. Knowledge about the epidemiology of syphilis may help policymakers and other stakeholders to allocate resources and target interventions for the prevention and elimination of syphilis.Systematic review registrationPROSPERO CRD42018116231

EBOLA VIRUS THREAT: AWARENESS, EDUCATION AND PREPAREDNESS

Background: Ebola virus (EBOV) is a real threat and Ebola virus disease (EVD) can be transferred to any country. International flights in a country enhance the risk of an EBOV outbreak and its spread, especially in thickly populated cities. There is a great need for awareness among common persons, health professionals and decision-makers about EVD and preparedness to manage an outbreak. Objective: The main objective of the study was to describe Ebola virus characteristics, mode of spread, risk factors, signs and symptoms, persistence, and preventions. Methods: PubMed was searched with keywords, and 700 articles were found. Abstracts of all searched articles were reviewed. WHO and CDC websites were explored for relevant information. Results: Contact with EVD patient's body fluids is the strongest risk factor. Although the incubation period of EBOV is from 2 to 21 days, while usually symptoms are developed between 4 and 10 days after exposure of Ebola virus. Similarities of signs and symptoms with other infectious diseases, mostly lead misdiagnosis. EBOV proteins reduce the human immune system's response to viral infections. In EVD survivors, Ebola virus can remain in semen, breast milk, ocular (eye) fluid, and spinal column fluid. It is very difficult to control and manage an outbreak of Ebola virus in areas of high population density areas. Conclusion: Awareness, knowledge, and education about EVD among populations and clinicians can decrease fear, risk, and fatalities. Preparedness and training to HCWs can minimise the risk of EVD especially in thickly populated cities and areas of a country.

A Review of the Pharmacist as Vaccinator.

The aim of this study is to review literature about how the pharmacist's role as vaccination providers has been financially and clinically measured. A broad literature search was conducted up to May 2016 to identify economic or clinical data on pharmacy vaccinations. MEDLINE® and PUBMED databases were searched for publications useful or potentially useful for this review. The NIH and CDC websites were also searched for relevant materials. Search terms included vaccination, pharmacist, economic, pharmacoeconomics, cost, benefits cost-effectiveness, physicians, immunizations, vaccinations, pharmacy vaccines, cost, physician vaccines, financial, benefit, ambulatory pharmacist vaccination, clinical pharmacist, economics, pharmacist vaccine impact. The search yielded a total of 68 articles of which 12 met the criteria to be included in this review. After examining articles for relevance to pharmacy vaccinations, two tables were created to highlight the clinical and economic advantages of the pharmacist as a vaccinator. Pharmacists who administer vaccines are an underutilized provider. This literature review reveals a pattern among studies measuring the pharmacist's impact on vaccination rates, patient preferences, and cost savings. Pharmacists have a history of demonstrated dependability, accuracy, and cost effectiveness. State laws, collaborative agreements, and health plans have continued to prevent patients from using the pharmacy to receive the CDC recommended vaccines. These barriers ultimately delay the Healthy People 2020 goals.

PocketAID: The Pocket Atlas of Infectious Diseases Mobile Application

PocketAID: The Pocket Atlas of Infectious Diseases Mobile Application

Zika Virus Infection, Basic and Clinical Aspects: A Review Article

Zika virus infection has recently attracted the attention of medical community. While clinical manifestations of the infection in adult cases are not severe and disease is not associated with high mortality rates, Zika virus infection can have an impact on fetal development and lead to severe neurodevelopmental abnormalities. To gain insight into different aspects of Zika virus infection, a comprehensive literature review was performed. With regard to epidemiology and geographical distribution of Zika virus infection, relevant information was extracted from CDC and WHO websites. In this review, we discuss different basic and clinical aspects of Zika virus infection including virology, epidemiology and pathogenesis of disease. Laboratory methods required for the diagnosis of disease together with ethical issues associated with Zika virus infection will also be discussed in detail. Herein, we have tried to provide a multi-faceted view of Zika virus infection, with greater emphasis on disease status in Eastern Mediterranean Region.

Visceral Leishmaniasis: Evaluation of Diagnostic Tools, Therapeutic Regimens, and Associated Risk Factors in Areas with Frequent Outbreaks in South Sudan and Sudan: Case Reports and Review of Literature

Introduction: Visceral leishmaniasis of genus Leishmania donovani is a known cause of Kala-azar, with an agent of Phlebotomus species. Other species of public health importance include Phlebotomus-martini that engulfed South Sudan bordering counties with Kenya whereas Phlebotomus-orientalis dominates northern parts of South Sudan and Sudan. It exhibits rare behavioral characteristics of outer door bites. Among Eastern African countries, South Sudan is a highly endemic area where more than 1/3 of the population is at risks of infections. This review aimed to evaluate the current diagnosis, treatment and risk factors associated with epidemics and mortality due to Visceral Leishmaniasis in Sudan and South Sudan.Methodology and Objective: Literatures published in SCI Journals, pub med, and science direct, Google, WHO reports, MSF, and CDC websites were searched starting from 1945 to 2018. Visceral leishmaniasis/VL diagnostic tools, treatment regimens, and associated risk factors were the keywords used during browsing. Details referred to Given Figures in the methodology section.Findings: Several risk factors contributed to the frequency of VL outbreaks. Chronic wars, malnutrition and settlement in areas infested by the sand fly, co-infections with either HIV or Hepatitis an emerging public health concern. Government efforts to control and eliminates the vectors of VL are lacking with negligible resources allocation. Acacia trees are proved to harbor sand fly as resting and hiding places. K39/K26 or rk39/rk28 dipstick is a field base diagnostic tool commonly used. Treatments with liposomal AmporicinB, sodium stibogluconate plus paromomycin are recommended for use in South Sudan. This review also revealed that areas formerly free from Kala-azar had experience recurrent epidemic.Conclusion: VL in South Sudan remains highly isolated from clinical diagnosis, treatment, and control strategies. Routine data for surveillance is also an absence. National guidelines and protocols for treatment, and vector control remain at standstill. The level of resistance of visceral Leishmania parasites to the available anti-leishmanial drugs required more researches. There is a close relationship between frequent VL outbreaks and internal conflicts, poor malnutrition, poverty and displacement to high transmission zones, individuals who are new in sand fly infested areas are at greater risks, including children, elderly and pregnant women.