Cave Shelter Research Articles

Rock Art of the Ana Zaga Cave Shelter in the Archaeological Landscape of Gobustan, Azerbaijan

The Agisoft and 3D Studio Max software was used to study the petroglyphs of the Ana Zaga rock shelter, the largest in Gobustan. Stylistic features typical of various periods are described, and radiocarbon estimates for various cultural layers are given. Chronological stages in the evolution of rock art are defined. On the basis of geological data concerning transgressions and regressions of the Caspian Sea, the date of the first human settlement of the Ana Zaga shelter is estimated. The species composition of extinct faunas represented in rock art is assessed. It is concluded that in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic, following the rise of the sea level, the rock shelter became the principal habitat. In the Bronze Age, after the sea level had fallen, the middle and lower terraces became suitable for living. As new landscapes were settled, the themes of petroglyphs changed.

Recent Archaeological Survey of Gidan Boji Settlement Site at Kwatarkwashi, Zamfara State, North-Western Nigeria

This paper presents a report and the findings of an archaeological survey carried out at Gidan Boji, an ancient settlement site in the Kwatarkwashi area in Zamfara State, northwestern Nigeria. The Kwatarkwashi area is one of the early centres of human occupation in Hausaland. The paper identified new sites of ancient human settlements in the Kwatarkwashi area that have not been described by previous studies. However, the most impressive of these newly identified sites in terms of size and structure is the Gidan Boji, which is the focus of this paper. The survey yields a wealth of archaeological finds including traces of homesteads, granary foundations, different types of defensive systems, grinding stones and pottery. Above all, the existence of defensive walls and several cave shelters suggests a fairly developed system of defense. This further confirms the existence of a settled society which a fairly well-developed material culture at a particular time in the past. For a clearer picture of the history, peopling and settlement pattern of Gidan Boji to be understood, the paper call for more attention towards systematic documentation of the entire sites and excavation around the Kwatarkwashi inselbergs. With more funds and collaborations, thorough archaeological investigation can be activated to study different aspects of the cultural history of the area as a similitude to the Nok Culture archaeological project.

Excavation and Conservation Recommendations in Handling Human Skeletal Remains: Case Studies from Desert Oases, Cave Shelters, and Permafrost in China and Mongolia

AbstractThe systematic excavation, long term storage, inventory, and analysis of complete human skeletal remains is a new concept in East Asia. This study examined four problematic cases where there was a demonstrated need for the implementation of conservation techniques. The first case included several naturally mummified skulls from Xinjiang, Province, China. Salt crystals were found to be solidifying on the outer table. The second case involved four naturally mummified cave burials from southwestern Mongolia. Once removed from the dry environment, they began to decompose again. The two last cases were permafrost burials in northern Mongolia. The skeletons were wrapped and stored in a manner which encouraged mold growth. This study will give recommendations for thorough archaeological recovery, cleaning, packaging for transport, reconstruction, and long-term storage of human skeletal remains.

Cave development by frost weathering

This paper deals with the description and genesis of a special type of shelter cave. In German they are termed Auswitterungshöhlen which goes back to the 19th century and the genesis is supposed to be related to frost weathering, but to our knowledge, detailed studies are missing so far. This type of cave is very common in the area of investigation that comprises pre-Alpine and Alpine regions in the north-eastern part of the Eastern Alps: They make up 32% of the 5138 registered caves but surprisingly they entirely developed in carbonate rocks. Although most of them are smaller than a dozen metres, some have lengths of more than 50m and entrances can be more than 100m wide or similarly high. Besides general observations that lead to a list of characteristics for these caves, two of them in a pre-Alpine setting were studied in-depth. A detailed map, descriptions, and measurements concerning cave morphology, host rock geology, and climate are given. The thickness and composition of clastic sediments were investigated by small trenches and electric resistivity measurements. Sediment thicknesses reach up to 2m inside the caves and below the entrances. For one year nets were installed to measure rockfall in both caves. In warm periods generally less than 5g/month of debris could be collected, but a few 100g/month for frost periods. This strong correlation and the significant amount of debris together with other observations suggest that frost weathering is an on-going and very important process for the formation of these caves. Grain-size distribution of the collected debris argues for the activity of both microgelivation and ice segregation. Therefore we suggest that the term frost weathering caves should be used for shelter caves whose genesis is related to frost weathering. As dissolution seems to be of marginal importance for the genesis they are a paradox as they develop in karstic rock but have pseudokarst features.

New directional archeomagnetic data of burned cave sediments from Switzerland and geomagnetic field variations in Central Europe

This paper presents new directional archeomagnetic data from nine Meso-/Neolithic fireplaces, sampled in a cave shelter, at Arconciel, in western Switzerland. Rock magnetic measurements indicate a homogenous magnetic mineralogy in all fireplaces, with magnetite as the main magnetic carrier. The remanent magnetization is stable and generally shows one characteristic directional component. Nine new directions, which were obtained from Arconciel, are combined with 356 other archeomagnetic data from a circular area with a radius of 700 km around this site, to obtain a penalized least square spline fit for the past 9000 yr. We found in general good agreement with other local compilations, such as the Balkan curve, the regional SCHA.DIF.8k model and with lake sediments from UK, Fennoscandia and Switzerland. Nevertheless, a time lag of several centuries is observed for a declination maximum between the archeomagnetic spline fit and the other European data records around 5900 BC. This time lag is also observed in the Swiss lake sediment record; therefore we interpret this shift as a local feature of the Earth's magnetic field.

Caves and other subsurface environments in the future exploration of Mars: the absence of natural background radiation as biology concern

The human deep space exploration focused on Mars, being the near eventual final destination. Mars surface habitation is considered a dangerous solution. Among others, radiation, micrometeorites and dust storms, are the major causes of risk for the human well-being during the mission. Caves on Mars can provide a natural shelter against these environmental hazards. Several practical applications address forward the use of caves as habitation opportunity. Within the caves, inflatable structures can be used, as opposed to the heavy structure surface buildings. For this reason, studies were taken to assess the possible areas for which caves could be used as human habitats as an alternative for an initial settlement of Mars. The results obtained not only suggest strong arguments for the use of caves, but also open questions for further quantification and understanding of current unknowns. In the present review, we focus on the hypothetical biological effects due to the cave shelter for natural background radiation that is of three orders of magnitude lower than Mars surface. Background radiation is the ubiquitous ionizing radiation that organisms experienced on the Earth, being present at the appearance of life on Earth. Nevertheless, both the effects of natural background radiation and its absence are not well known. We review the literature based on the effects of the absence of natural background to pursue a common scientific effort to gain scientific knowledge in this future deep space exploration scenario in a Sino-Italy cooperation, taking advantage of the JingPing cavern laboratory in the Sichuan region.

The Taupo obsidian source, central North Island, New Zealand

The Taupo source contains extensive deposits of high quality obsidian, which were exploited by pre-European Maori up until the eighteenth century. Although quarry sites have previously been recorded, inspection of those sites revealed no definite evidence of the physical extraction of material from outcrops in prehistoric times. Instead, field observations and a re-examination of artefact assemblages recovered from local cave shelters suggest that obsidian was probably procured mainly from colluvial deposits, in the form of natural blocks, and as cobbles from the nearby lake shore. New information on the visual characteristics and chemical composition of the Taupo obsidian is presented.

Resolution of Respect: Professor Paul Schultz Martin 1928–2010

Resolution of Respect: Professor Paul Schultz Martin 1928–2010

Late Archaic Site Use at Sachsen Cave Shelter, Upper Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee

Upland regions have typically received short shrift in archaeology. We present preliminary results of archaeological testing at Sachsen Cave Shelter, a “rock house” on the Upper Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee (UCP). Interpretations thus far indicate that the site was used repeatedly as a residential base camp for small family groups over a long period of time during the Late Archaic Period (ca. 6-3000 BP) by prehistoric hunter gatherers who lived year round in the uplands of Southern Appalachia. These activities include butchering and cooking of large mammals on site, nut processing and cooking, and hide processing and sewing. These activities appear to have been concentrated in the fall of the year. However, it is likely that site function depended upon seasonal exploitation of local resources, because faunal elements were recovered that indicate use during the spring and summer months. It may also be that the site was used year round. We support these hypotheses with technological, use-wear, faunal, and archaeobotanical studies.

Size-dependent use of territorial space by a rock-dwelling cichlid fish

Territoriality fundamentally influences animal mating systems and patterns of population structure. Although territory ownership is already known to contribute importantly to male reproductive success and the ecological coexistence of African rock-dwelling cichlids, the significance of variation in territory features has received little attention in these fishes. In Lake Malawi, males of Pseudotropheus tropheops "orange chest" defend territories on either of two substrate classes at Harbour Island: flat rock slabs lacking crevices and caves, or structurally complex boulder fields containing cave shelters. Focal watches of this species demonstrated that both territory size and occupancy on either substrate type depend on the size of male residents. Males larger than a threshold size exclusively held the largest and most structurally complex territories. After removal of conspecific residents, more vacant territorial areas on cave-containing substrate were reoccupied by "orange chest" males in full breeding coloration compared to vacant areas on flat substrate. These findings suggest competition among "orange chest" males for complex rocky substrate. Defense of caves was associated with enhanced male courtship rates: the number of caves within a male's territory was a better predictor of courtship activity than was male size or territory area. In addition to territories being crucial for male reproductive success and therefore likely playing a role in sexual selection, male-male competition for caves in rock-dwelling cichlids may be promoted by the ecological advantage of enemy-free space. Smaller "orange chest" males lacking caves tended to move into adjacent boulder fields in the presence of predators, particularly at night. In contrast, males defending caves were more likely to remain on their territories when nocturnal predators were present. The territorial behaviors of P. tropheops "orange chest" that we observed in situ provide an instructive natural framework for testing the roles of substrate and ecology in the mating systems of rock-dwelling cichlid fishes.

Discovery of isolated dodo bones [ Raphus cucullatus (L.), Aves, Columbiformes] from Mauritius cave shelters highlights human predation, with a comment on the status of the family Raphidae Wetmore, 1930

The discovery of isolated dodo bones, Raphus cucullatus (L.) in high perched shelters strongly suggests that the bird's extinction was intimately linked with human predation. The dodo was a lowland bird and could not have had access to high level cliffs. Previously, paleontological remains of the dodo had been collected in the lowlands of Mauritius, which is in agreement with its terrestrial habits. The presence of fugitive slaves and convicts from early 17th century Dutch period may have been responsible for the rapid elimination of the species. This probably represents the first concrete evidence of dodo predation to be associated with direct human activity. Alternatively other dodo bones were found in the lava tunnel system in northeast of the island and are relics due to natural death. The familial status of the raphids is no longer valid in view of recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses, and consequently the genus Raphus is included in the family Columbidae.

Pygmy Populations Seronegative for Marburg Virus

Pygmy Populations Seronegative for Marburg Virus

Ultrasonic Cave Mapping

Surveying the internal structure of a cave is an important part of any archaeological or palaeontological investigation of a cave locality. However, the use of standard topographical surveying techniques is often difficult due both to the irregular nature of the structure and to the difficult working conditions. This study uses a novel method based on ultrasound reflections to produce an accurate 3D model of Kitley Shelter Cave, an archaeological cave in Yealmpton, Devon. This model enables the cave system to be visualized leading to a better understanding of the site and its taphonomy.

Biology of the sweeper,Pempheris vanicolensisCuvier & Valenciennes, a Lessepsian migrant in the eastern Mediterranean, with a comparison with the original Red Sea population

Various aspects of the biology ofPempheris vanicolensisCuvier & Valenciennes, a recent Lessepsian (Suez Canal) immigrant into the Mediterranean, are given. Red Sea and Mediterranean populations were compared, and the results indicate that the spawning season is shortened in the Mediterranean, continuing from April to September, as opposed to year‐round in the Red Sea. Descriptions of a ripe ovary and post‐larva from the Mediterranean are given. Individuals reach a mean size of 108 mm (t.l.) in their first year, and 144 mm in the second year. Little change has occurred in the diet of the immigrant population, and both populations feed nocturnally, chiefly on larval and adult stages of planktonic crustaceans. Direct underwater observations on the diurnal behaviour of the species show that the fish leave their daytime cave shelter at sunset, congregate at a nearby site and then migrate inshore and disperse into small groups to feed. Before dawn, they reassemble at the cave's entrance, and finally enter it at sunrise, after the school has built up. Observations on Mediterranean sweepers show that the fish are segregated into size groups, ranging from 30 mm juveniles in the high littoral to 100–150 mm adults at depths of 4–5 m.

Morphological changes in the facial region and a model of dental growth and wear pattern development in Nothrotheriops shastensis

ABSTRACT Specimens of Nothrotheriops shastensis (25 juvenile mandibles or fragments, and 22 maxillae and fragments) from San Josecito Cave, Mexico, Shelter Cave, Conkling Cavern, Rampart Cave, and the tar seeps at Rancho La Brea were examined to determine (1) the patterns of tooth growth, eruption, and wear, and (2) the pattern of anterior facial growth. Although they lack enamel, sloth teeth have a hard outer layer of dentine structurally distinct from the softer central dentine. These two dentine types were present in all specimens, including the smallest juvenile (length of mandibular tooth row = 20.3 mm). Some tooth wear was present in all specimens. The alveoli for the ever-growing teeth extend to the ventral border of the mandibular ramus in adult sloths but not in juveniles. Both maxillary and mandibular tooth roots in juvenile sloths are tilted and curved, but in adults are more vertical and straight. Changes in tooth size and orientation during growth result in size and shape changes in the occlu...

First Records for the Boreal Owl in New Mexico

In North America the Boreal Owl (Aegoliusfunereus) was long believed to breed only in Canada and Alaska (AOU 1957). A juvenile of this species collected in August 1963 in north-central Colorado (Baldwin and Koplin 1966) was the first indication that the species might breed much farther south, particularly in the Rocky Mountain chain. Increased efforts by biologists and birdwatchers led to the discovery of nests in Minnesota (Eckert and Savaloja 1979), Idaho (Hayward and Garton 1983), and Colorado (Palmer and Ryder 1984). Fledged young have been seen in Washington (Batey et al. 1980) and Montana (Rogers 1973). Spring records of singing males indicate that breeding populations are widespread in Idaho, Montana (Hayward et al. 1987a), and Colorado (Ryder et al. 1987). The accumulation of breeding season records in recent years is more likely the result of greater human penetration of Boreal Owl habitat during the peak singing period, generally March through early May, rather than an increase in owl numbers or a range expansion into the region (Palmer and Ryder 1984). Summer and autumn records in eastern Washington and Oregon indicate that the species is resident there (Whelton 1989). Autumn records from 1896, 1903, and 1929 in Colorado (Bailey and Niedrach 1965) suggest that the species has been resident there historically in suitable habitat (Baldwin and Koplin 1966). The Boreal Owl had not been reported in New Mexico since the arrival of Europeans, but bones attributed to Crypotoglaux (=Aegolius) funerea richardsoni were found among Pleistocene bones in Shelter Cave, Dona Ana County, New Mexico (Howard 1931). Since the species had been documented in Colorado only 56 km north of the New Mexico border in 1985 (Ryder et al. 1987), we initiated surveys for the Boreal Owl near Cumbres Pass on the Colorado/New Mexico border in the spring of 1987 and expanded our efforts south into New Mexico in succeeding seasons. Most Boreal Owl records for Colorado are from elevations in excess of 2,700 m and in climax Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir (Picea engelmanni-Abies lasiocarpa) forests interspersed with meadows and other small openings (Ryder et al. 1987). We conducted surveys between April 1987 and April 1989 in the Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, and Jemez mountains (Fig. 1), concentrating on this habitat type. Breeding season surveys (18 nights) were conducted as described by Ryder et al. (1987) while autumn surveys (16 nights) followed the protocol of Palmer and Rawinski (1986). Both surveys involved playback of the Boreal Owl staccato song (Bondrup-Nielson 1984) for 5-min intervals at stations spaced 200 to 800 m apart. Documentation required a vocal response (staccato song) or a sighting in the spring. We report only sightings of Boreal Owls in the autumn because the Northern Saw-whet Owl (A. acadicus) has similar call notes, though Whelton (1989) also reported summer and autumn Boreal Owls based on calls. Boreal Owls were recorded at five locations in New Mexico and three locations in adjacent southern Colorado (Fig. 1, Table 1). Two autumn sightings were made more than 45 km south of Colorado and one spring sighting occurred 107 km to the south of the state line. A photograph of the first New Mexico record was published (Hubbard 1987) and photographs of it and two other owls were deposited in the New Mexico Ornithological Society Archives. We heard six Northern Saw-whet Owls and saw another. All these owls sang their typical courtship song; five were heard in the spring. Unidentified Aegolius respondents were seen or heard at seven other New Mexico locations during autumn surveys (Fig. 1). These may also have been Boreal Owls; at two autumn locations (B and C; Fig. 1) we saw Boreal Owls in the same vicinity where Aegolius owls responded during earlier surveys. Whelton (1989) had 40 contacts with Boreal Owls, but saw only seven of those perched. He identified the remainder by physical and flight characteristics (eight) or their calls (25). He recorded only three saw-whet owls, or only 11% of a total of 28 unseen 'Received 13 June 1989. Final acceptance 22 January 1990.

The Roosting and Foraging Areas of Epomophorus wahlbergi (Pteropodidae) and Scotophilus viridis (Vespertilionidae) in Kruger National Park, South Africa

In April 1984, in Kruger National Park, we used radio tracking to study the roosting and foraging behavior of Epomophorus wahlhergi and Scotophilus viridis , two bats known to roost in trees. Most E. wahlhergi roosted in foliage in riverine forest, although some roosted in a shelter cave; the S. viridis invariably roosted in hollow mopane trees along the steep sides or tops of ridges. Neither species showed any strong evidence of changing the day roosts they used to minimize commuting distance to foraging areas, although both species regularly switched locations of day roosts within localized areas. Switching day roosts may reduce predation.

Conkling's Roadrunner: A Subspecies of the California Roadrunner?

-A fossil roadrunner from interstadial deposits (ca. 33,590 BP) in New Mexico is identified as Geococcyx californianus. Fossil remains from California, dating from the subsequent late Wisconsinan stadial, have been assigned to the same taxon. However, approximately contemporaneous populations of larger-sized individuals occurring inland have been named G. conklingi. This taxon also has been recognized as surviving into the early Holocene before becoming extinct. This geographic and temporal pattern is hypothesized as being the result of local adaptations for temperature regulation: hot summer temperatures result in heat stress, resulting in selection against large individuals that otherwise would be best adapted for winter cold; absence of hot temperatures allows selection for large-sized individuals. The inland population of large-sized roadrunners, then, was a geographic and temporal subspecies, G. californianus conklingi. Conkling's Roadrunner (Geococcyx conklingi) was described by Howard (1931) from late Pleistocene deposits of Conkling Cavern, Dona Ana Co., New Mexico (Fig. 1). The species was characterized by size greater than that of the living roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus. Specimens from a nearby site (Shelter Cave) also were referred to this species (G. californianus also was reported, but some specimens definitely were modern and the remainder probably so). Since that time, G. conklingi has been reported from the late Pleistocene sites of San Josecito Cave, in southern Nuevo Leon, Mexico (L. Miller, 1943); and Dark Canyon Cave (Howard, 1971), southwest of Carlsbad, Eddy Co., New Mexico. Gehlbach and Holman (1974) reported its presence in Holocene deposits (<6,000 BP) of Pratt Cave in the Guadalupe Mountains of Culberson Co., Texas; Rea (1980) confirmed the identification, though it is slightly larger and somewhat different in characters from the type. Fossil G. californianus have been reported only from the late Pleistocene asphalt deposits of California: Rancho La Brea, Los Angeles Co.; Carpinteria, Santa Barbara Co.; and McKittrick, Kern Co. (Larson, 1930). Thus the literature indicates the presence of G. californianus in California at the same time as G. conklingi occurred inland, with the latter persisting well into the Holocene. In this paper, we add two pertinent records of fossil roadrunners and attempt to clarify the taxonomy and paleoecology of the

Social Behaviour of the Euro, Macropus robustus (Gould), in the Australian Arid Zone

About 1600 h have been spent in the field studying the social behaviour of the euro in a semiarid to arid habitat. Social relationships and grouping patterns of six size and sex classes (large and medium-sized adult males, adult females, subadult males and females, and young-at-foot) have been determined. Euros form small groups, highly labile in size and composition, and are often solitary. The mother-young bond is the most enduring social relationship. The only other strong bond, a one-to-one consort relationship between a large male and an oestrous female, is very brief. Gross sexual dimorphism in this species is related to competition between males for mates. In agonistic encounters over females, or for limited resources such as cave shelters, the larger animal normally takes priority. Mating is probably polygynous. The repertoire of communicatory behaviour is limited to a few vocalizations and displays, but olfactory stimuli are important in a euro's social behaviour. Ecological factors in the social organization of euros are discussed.

Shasta ground sloth ( Nothrotheriops shastense hoffstetter) at Shelter Cave, New Mexico: Environment, diet, and extinction

Seven coprolites of the extinct Shasta ground sloth ( Nothrotheriops shastense) were recently discovered in the Los Angeles County Museum collection from Shelter Cave, New Mexico. Three dung balls provided radiocarbon ages of 11,330, 12,330 and 12,430 yr B.P. Packrat ( Neotoma) middens disclose a xeric juniper woodland at Shelter Cave during the sloth's occupation. Plant cuticles from the dung indicate that the ground sloth had a diet dominated by mormon tea ( Ephedra) and other xerophytic shrubs. Pollen spectra from the coprolites have high representations of anemophilous plants and low representations of the dietary items shown in the cuticle analysis. Fifteen radiocarbon dates of sloth dung obtained since 1974 strengthen the hypothesis that sloth extinction occurred about 11,000 yr B.P. Paleoenvironmental studies indicate that ground sloths lived in juniper woodlands and montane conifer communities. Nothrotheriops commonly dined on shrubs that are still present in these habitats. It is difficult to explain the demise of the Shasta ground sloth by climatic change or dietary stress. Human predation remains as a possible explanation; ground sloth extinction appears to coincide with the time of Clovis mammoth hunters.