Cave Ceilings Research Articles

Pup guarding by greater spear-nosed bats

Alloparental care poses an evolutionary dilemma because effort is expended on non-filial offspring. Thus, instances of alloparental care have been attributed to either mistaken identity, (i.e., recognition errors) or active cooperation. In greater spear-nosed bats (Phyllostomus hastatus), reproductive females roost together in stable long-term social groups in cave ceilings. Non-volant pups frequently fall from roost sites to the cave floor where they can die unless retrieved by an adult. In this study, we examined the function of adult female visits to non-filial young and tested whether visits were attributable to recognition errors or to cooperation. We found that females visited non-filial pups from their own social group more than expected. Females from different social groups attacked and sometimes killed pups, and male pups were attacked more frequently than female pups. Visits by group mates benefited fallen pups by reducing the likelihood of attack by females from other groups. In contrast to the mistaken identity hypothesis, we found that some females leave their own pups to approach and remain with group mates' pups. We used microsatellite markers to estimate relatedness and test whether kinship could explain this alloparental care and found that females were unrelated to the pups they guard. We conclude that females who reside in highly stable social groups exhibit cooperative behavior that cannot be explained by kinship and is unlikely to be due to direct or generalized reciprocity. Instead, our data suggest that alloparental care likely involves a complex interplay between group membership and cooperative foraging.

Spatial Structure of the community of bats (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) hibernating in artificial caves of Samarskaya Luka

Specific features of the spatial distribution and localization of bats have been studied during their hibernation in artificial caves of Samarskaya Luka. The proportion of cave area occupied by bats varies from 70 to 93% in large caves (> 60000 m2), decreasing to 50% in medium-sized caves (10000-60000 m2) and to less than 30% in small caves (< 10000 m2). Approximately 9% of bats choose sites near cave openings, up to 25% prefer central parts, but most bats (about 66%) concentrate in the deepest parts of caves. Among wintering species, higher rates of occurrence and shelter occupancy are characteristic of Plecotus auritus. Myotis daubentonii, and M. mystacinus, whereas M. dasycneme and M. brandtii show the highest degree of aggregation. The optimal temperature range for the wintering of all bat species is 2-4 degrees C. Myotis brandtii, Eptesicus nilssonii, and M. daubentonii prefer to hibernate in open spaces of cave ceilings; M. mystacinus. E. serotinus, and Pl. auritus usually occupy the middle and upper parts of walls; while M. dasycneme and M. nattereri occur mainly in hollows on ceilings.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MINERAL COMPOSITION OF SPELEOTHEMS AND MINERALIZATION OF BRECCIA PIPES: EVIDENCE FROM CORKSCREW CAVE, ARIZONA, USA

Solution-collapse breccia pipes are common features in northwestern Arizona. They were mineralized with uranium, but associated with it are a suite of elements ( e.g., As, Mo, V, Ba, Cu, Pb, and Fe) that may form other ore minerals. Breccia bodies are in some cases cut by cave passages, such as at Corkscrew Cave, Arizona, where such structures are exposed along the walls and on the cave ceilings. The abundance of gypsum and barite throughout the cave and their isotopically light δ34S value (−11 to −7‰) suggest deposition from warm sulfidic solutions that were also responsible, at least in part, for development of the recent cave passages that dissect older paleokarst breccia bodies. The presence of calcite showing depleted δ18O values (−11.3 and −16.9‰) is considered indicative of a low-temperature hydrothermal episode in the deposition history of cave minerals. Groundwater percolating through the breccia-pipe bodies mobilized and transported ore-related ions into the cave, where they formed a unique assemblage of minerals ( i.e., hornesite, talmessite, carnotite, tyuyamunite, claudetite, and powellite) that mirror breccia-pipe mineralization.

Safety assessment and protection of monuments located in caves - a case study from the city of Volos, Greece

The holy shrine ofPanagia (Saint Maria) Goritsis is located in a cave on the outer limits of the city of Volos, on the coastline. The stability problems caused by the loosening of the rockmass and the expansion of the joints generated issues about the safety of the numerous worshippers visiting the church every day. The cave is located into the Middle Triassic - Upper Jurassic marbles of the Pelagonian zone. The fragmentation of the rockmass along the two faults intersecting the slope until the coastline, combined with the weathering action of waves led to the formation of the cave. Although the action of the waves was cut of by the construction of the narthex and the surrounding buildings, the stability problems of the cave are intensified by the dynamic loading of the roof. The ceiling of cave is located 1 to 3 metres under the national road and the railway line connecting Volos with Agia. The selection of the proper support measures was complicated. The limited space, the small depth and most of all the religious and the historical value of the cave led to the selection of light support measures combined with the imposition of restriction for the reduction of the dynamic and the static loading

Multivariate Analysis of Copepod Assemblages in Epikarstic Waters of Some Slovenian Caves

A series of sampling sites in 6 caves was established in order to assess the importance of the epikarst as a habitat of high diversity of meiofauna. Special attention was given to the stygobiotic species of copepods (Crustacea), which was the most abundant group of animals in water percolating from the epikarst. In total, 37 species of Copepoda were identified from nearly 4000 individuals. To understand epikarst as a habitat, 14 structural and physico-chemical factors were analysed and compared for two types of habitats, i.e., trickles and pools filled with percolation water. Results of canonical correspondence analysis indicated that the significant factors influencing faunal composition in trickles were the thickness of the cave ceiling and the concentrations of sodium, nitrate, and potassium ions, while in pools correlations between individual species and pH, temperature, volume, conductivity and thickness of the cave ceiling were statistically significant. Aquatic copepod assemblages in epikarst encompass species of different taxonomic affinities, living in severe environmental conditions. The pattern of the system reflects both high taxonomic diversity and environmental severity.

Environmental information from guano palynology of insectivorous bats of the central part of the United States of America

Bat droppings accumulate in caves, and the resultant guano contains a stratigraphic record of the environment analogous to the record from lake sediment and peat. The bats forage at night for insects; they return to the cave during the day to sleep and care for their young. They attach themselves to suitable perches in the cave ceiling, and their excrement accumulates on the floor below. Flying requires a lot of energy, and bats of temperate regions consume large numbers of night-flying insects. In some situations the guano can reach a depth of meters in hundreds to thousands of years, and it has a valuable chronostratigraphy. The bat scats occur as small pellets that represent the non-digestible portion of the animal's diet in the preceding few hours; hence the diet provides information about the time of the year the feeding occurred. Bat guano contains, among other things, insect fragments, hair, pollen, and mineral matter. Night-flying insects do not normally visit flowers for the pollen; many species do not eat during the flying phase of their life cycle, and those that do generally are nectar feeders. Although the insects are not after the pollen, they do fly through a pollen-laden environment, and the pollen and dust adheres to their bodies. The insects essentially act as living traps for airborne debris. The bats also are furry pollen traps; during grooming they ingest pollen and dust enmeshed in their fur, and this also is excreted. The pollen in an individual scat contains a record of the atmospheric pollen during a single day in the past. This kind of detail is rarely available from lake sediment. Chemical analysis of individual bat scats in a time series can chart the changing environment caused by agriculture, industry, volcanic dust, and a host of other details that depend only on the cleverness of the researcher. Careful 14C analysis can isolate the times when bats did not use the cave, and that may be useful in interpreting past conditions. If the insect types in the guano change over time, that may provide evidence of changing climate. Pollen was analyzed from guano samples taken from Tumbling Creek Cave near Protem, Missouri, USA. The cave contains a maternal colony of the Grey Bat ( Myotis grisescens) that occupies the cave for a short time each year. Scats collected from the base of a 70 cm thick cone of guano yielded an AMS 14C date of 2810 ± 40 yr BP. The fecal material has a crumbly structure below the surface; it was of mahogany color (7.5 YR 2/1 to 3/2) and had no noticeable odor. Guano can be processed like normal sediment, but simple washing in a weak detergent solution followed by acetolysis appears adequate.

Seasonal trace-element and stable-isotope variations in a Chinese speleothem: The potential for high-resolution paleomonsoon reconstruction

We report the presence of clear annual cycles in trace-element (Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, Ba/Ca, and U/Ca) and stable-isotope (δ 18O and δ 13C) composition in an annually banded stalagmite from Heshang Cave, Hubei Province, China (30.44°N, 110.42°E). Through a combination of micromilling and in situ analysis (LA–MC–ICPMS), we measured geochemical variations across 16 annual growth bands, to assess their potential as seasonal resolution paleomonsoon proxies. To facilitate comparison with modern climatic and environmental data we created composite annual cycles for each proxy by stacking 6 well-defined years. Speleothem δ 18O variations (− 10.8‰ to − 8.5‰) are controlled by seasonal variations in temperature and drip-water δ 18O which lead to maximum values during May, around the time of summer monsoon onset. This provides a chronological marker which can be used to constrain the timing of the other geochemical cycles. The composite cycles reveal a strong positive correlation between Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, Ba/Ca, and δ 13C values in the micromilled section ( R 2 = 0.65–0.98), with minimum values occurring around May. Maximum U/Ca values occur at the same time. We present simple models which show that these correlations, as well as the observed ranges of Mg/Ca (14.1 to 22.4 mmol/mol), Sr/Ca (0.2 to 0.4 mmol/mol), and δ 13C (− 12.5‰ to − 10.7‰), may be fully explained by progressive CO 2 degassing and calcite precipitation from an initially saturated solution. Using realistic initial conditions for Heshang Cave ( T = 18 °C, Mg/Ca solution = 0.84 mol/mol, Sr/Ca solution = 0.69 mmol/mol, δ 13C TDIC = − 16.75‰), we find that the observed relationships can be produced by using D Mg = 0.016 and D Sr = 0.30, within the range of expected values. The model suggests that the fraction of Ca removed from the solution ranges from 0 to 30% to produce the observed seasonal cycles. This variation may be due to two related processes which occur during drier periods: (1) increased prior precipitation of calcite in the epikarst or on the cave ceiling, and/or (2) a greater degree of CO 2 degassing and calcite precipitation on stalagmite surfaces when drip-rates are lower. Both mechanisms would have the effect of enriching speleothem Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, Ba/Ca, and δ 13C values during drier periods. Past variations in Heshang carbonate chemistry may therefore be useful as seasonal resolution proxies for past rainfall.

Stalactite growth as a free-boundary problem

Stalactites, the most familiar structures found hanging from the ceilings of limestone caves, grow by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from within a thin film of fluid flowing down their surfaces. We have recently shown [M. B. Short, J. C. Baygents, J. W. Beck, D. A. Stone, R. S. Toomey III, and R. E. Goldstein, “Stalactite growth as a free-boundary problem: A geometric law and its Platonic ideal,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 018501 (2005)] that the combination of thin-film fluid dynamics, calcium carbonate chemistry, and carbon dioxide diffusion and outgassing leads to a local geometric growth law for the surface evolution which quantitatively explains the shapes of natural stalactites. Here we provide details of this free-boundary calculation, exploiting a strong separation of time scales among that for diffusion within the layer, contact of a fluid parcel with the growing surface, and growth. When the flow rate, the scale of the stalactite, and the chemistry are in the ranges typically found in nature, the local growth rate is proportional to the local thickness of the fluid layer, itself determined by Stokes flow over the surface. Numerical studies of this law establish that a broad class of initial conditions is attracted to an ideal universal shape, whose mathematical form is found analytically. Statistical analysis of stalactite shapes from Kartchner Caverns (Benson, AZ) shows excellent agreement between the average shape of natural stalactites and the ideal shape. Generalizations of these results to nonaxisymmetric speleothems are discussed.

New data on occurrence of thermophile Scleractinia (Cnidaria, Anthozoa) in the Phlaegrean Island (Ischia, Procida, Vivara, Gulf of Naples), with special attention to Astroides calycularis

Biogeographia vol. XXV - 2004 (Printed December, 30 q&#39; 2004) Marine Biogeography of the Mediterranean Sea: patterns and dynamics ofbiodiversity New data on occurrence of thermophile Scleractinia (Cnidaria, Anthozoa) in tl1e Phlaegrean Islands (lschia, Procida, Vivara, Gulf of Naples), with special attention to /lstroicles cal)/cu/arts MARCO DAPPIANO°*, MARIA CRISTINA GAMBI* ° [CR/LM, via dz’ Czzsrzlotti 300, Roma (Italy). Ttzborzztario di Ecologirz del Bent/705, Stzzzione Zoologiaz qA. Do/7m ”, Pzmtzz San Pietro —./380077 Isc/7221 (Nzzpoli, Italy) Key words: Scleractinia, Afiroitler a1/you/zzrir, distribution, marine cave, Tyrrhenian Sea. SUMMARY Ntw data on occurrence and distribution of some Scleractinia (Cnidaria, Arithozoa) with thermophile affinity were presented for the area comprising the Phlaegrean islands (lschia, Procida and Vivara, Gulf of Naples Tyrrhenian Sea). Data were obtained by means ofvisual census and photographic sampling in 21 sites located all around the islands on rocky cliffs, rocky banks and semi-obscure caves. Four species with thermophile affinity were recorded: Clzzdocorzz czzerpitarzz (Linneo, 1767), Mzzzlraa‘.tp/rzzmzsis (Heller, 1868), P/Jyllzmgzlz mom:/aezii (Lacaze—Duthiers, 1897), and Artroides mlym/izrir (Pallas, 1766). Both M. plmremir and P. mozrr/Jezii were first reported for the studied area after our study. The most widespread and frequent species was C raertaitara, occurring in almost all studied sites in photophilious biotopes within the first 15-20 m depth. M. 127/1zzremz&#39;: was particularly abundant in the “Grotta Grande” of the bank “Formiche of Vivara”, where it formed a large flzcie: on the cave ceiling. P. mam‘/Jezii was the most occasional specie occurring with few colonies in three sites between 25 and 40 m depth. For A. nzlycztlrzris a specific study on abundance pattern and population structure was performed in three stations (two inside of a semi—submersed, semi—obscure cave and one along the shadowed cliff off S. Angelo). A. czzlyrztldrzk showed very high densities in the zone 0-1 m depth, mainly consisting of young specimens (1—3 corallites). Density showed a dramatic decrease below 3 m depth in the two stations inside the cave, while in S. Angelo density started to decrease below 6-8 m depth. Inside of the cave, comparison with previous observations from an earlier ecological study performed in 1976, revealed that the species has strongly increased its abundance and coverage, extending its colonization to the entire perimeter of the cave, including a long and narrow siphon and a large inner chamber (from approx. 56 ml of bottom colonized in 1976 to approx. 418 m” in 2003). The high frequency, and extension of/1. m{yt‘zz/zzri: in the studied area can be favored by changes in the hydrographic conditions in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea and in the Gulf of Naples. In fact, an overall slight warming of the superficial waters has been recorded in some periods in the Gulf. Longer water mass summer stratification and increase of winter minimum were occasionally recorded. This inter—annual variability, with some years or longer periods of warming of the superficial waters, may be an important factor for the reproductive success of the species, which in these periods can favor more intensive offspring production and increase successful settlement of new recruits that may lead to the increased colonization observed. A. rzzlym/zzrir, especially in those areas such as the Gulf of Naples near to its northern distribution limit, should be therefore considered as a good “biological indicator” at short and rnedium—term scale, to reveal ongoing climatic changes.

The vadose flow above Soreq Cave, Israel: a tritium study of the cave waters

32 tritium analyses were performed on 13 different water sources within Soreq Cave, Israel; eight of the water sources were analyzed once each, and the other five between 3 and 6 times each, on samples collected between 1990 and 2000. The results were compared with similar analyses of a 1981–82 collection and with the tritium concentrations of the annual rainfall from 1952 to 1998. The tritium in several of the cave waters was so high (up to 110 TU) that they must have originated mainly in the peak tritium rain year 1964. Most of the other cave waters had tritium concentrations, which though somewhat lower, must have originated largely from rain that fell between 1962 and 1966. The consequences of these tritium observations are that: (1) it generally takes 26–36 years for rainwater to percolate from ground surface to Soreq Cave ceiling; and (2) the type of flow undergone during this percolation is in several cases very similar to ‘piston flow’, hence the annual packets of rainfall reach the cave without undergoing much mixing with either earlier or later rains. In about one-third of the cases, tritium was too low to determine the percolation time. Finally, the time variations of the tritium concentrations in specific cave water sources seem to indicate that the conduits which bring water to these sources may have undergone physical changes which affect the amount of time it took for rain to reach the cave ceiling.

Stable Isotope and Radiocarbon Analyses of a Black Deposit Associated with Pictographs at Little Lost River Cave, Idaho

A glossy, black deposit covers much of the ceiling and walls of Little Lost River Cave No. 1, Idaho. This site is of particular interest because of the red, orange, and yellow pictographs underlying the coating. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis has allowed us to better understand the nature and origin of the deposit. With a δ13C value of −20·1‰, δ15N value of +14‰, and a C/N ratio of 5·6 after removal of inorganic carbon from the sample matrix, the deposit appears to have been derived from animal tissue, not plant. Plasma chemical extraction of carbon from the organic material in another sample of the deposit, followed by accelerator mass spectrometric analysis, yielded a minimum uncalibrated radiocarbon age of 2990±50bp for the paintings. This preliminary evidence suggests that the deposit may be a cooking residue.

Variability in numbers of long‐tailed bats (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) roosting in Grand Canyon Cave, New Zealand: Implications for monitoring population trends

Counts of roosting bats undertaken within caves are used frequently as indicators of population size, long‐term indices of population trends, and as measures of response to management. Numbers of New Zealand long‐tailed bats (Chalinolobus tuberculatus Forster 1844) using Grand Canyon Cave were monitored over 8 years. Grand Canyon Cave is a focal point for one of the largest known populations. Its has been used by long‐tailed bats consistently for >40 years. The aims of this study were to examine the utility of cave‐roost counts for long‐term monitoring of population trends in this threatened species, and to establish a baseline for future monitoring. Two population indices, number of bats counted roosting inside the cave during the day and net number emerging at dusk, were not significantly different. Monthly and daily counts were characterised by high variability. Indices varied significantly through the year but not between years. Distribution of bats within the cave was not random. Bats avoided roosting within 30 m of each entrance and larger groups were always concentrated along two 50 m stretches of cave ceiling. Large groups occurred when cave temperatures ranged from 10–13°C, suggesting an optimum temperature range. Maximum counts of 250 (day roosting) and 358 (night roosting) bats confirm that Grand Canyon Cave is significant as a site for C. tuberculatus. Counts can be used as a baseline against which to judge future trends in the population of C. tuberculatus at Grand Canyon Cave and contribute to national monitoring of bat populations. Effects of variation can be overcome with standardisation of repeat counts, adopting a sampling frequency that provides sufficient power to detect changes, and use of statistical models that separate sampling effects from variance in bat activity. Recommendations for future monitoring are made.

THE SPECIES–AREA RELATIONSHIP IN BAT ASSEMBLAGES OF TROPICAL CAVES

Abstract We tested for a relationship between number of bat species and surface area of 20 caves in central Mexico and investigated the role of the habitat diversity model as an explanation for this relationship. There was a significant positive correlation between the logarithm of species richness and the logarithm of cave surface area, evidence of a species–area relationship. Our data suggest that roost site diversity, as indicated by spatial variation in relative humidity and presence of avons (conical depressions in cave ceilings) is a cause of the species–area relationship.

Sedimentological and stratigraphic observations in El Mirón, a late Quaternary cave site in the Cantabrian Cordillera, Northern Spain

AbstractEl Mirón cave on the northern edge of the Cantabrian Cordillera is one of the first montane sites in this area to be the object of modern interdisciplinary research. Five excavation seasons have revealed an archaeological sequence attributable to the Medieval, Bronze, Chalcolithic, Neolithic, Mesolithic, Azilian, Magdalenian, and Solutrean periods, and early Upper and Middle Paleolithic levels have just been reached. Forty‐four radiocarbon ages range from 900 to 41,000 14C yr B.P. Sediments in the vestibule include sediment redeposited from an ancient colluvial fill in the inner cave, limestone rock fragments, biogenic CaCO3 generated by cryptogamic and vegetation growth on the cave ceiling, eolian silts, bird droppings, and anthropogenic lithic and faunal remains. Sedimentological analyses of the cave fill reported here document the transition from a sandy silt facies with rounded cobbles in the inner vestibule to a carbonate‐rich silt facies with angular limestone clasts near the cave mouth. There is no clear regional paleoclimatic signal in the bulk sediment analyses because of the heavy influence of local input and human disturbance. Micromorphology by M.‐A. Courty (see Courty and Vallverdu [this issue]; and also Courty et al. [1989]) reveals subtle evidence for some short‐term variations that can be correlated with regional paleoclimates, such as the Younger Dryas event. © 2001 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc.

An Attempt to Identify and Classify Scenes with a Central Buddha Depicted on Ceilings of the Kyzil Caves (Former Kingdom of Kutcha, Central Asia)

An Attempt to Identify and Classify Scenes with a Central Buddha Depicted on Ceilings of the Kyzil Caves (Former Kingdom of Kutcha, Central Asia)

Dripping into subterranean cavities from unsaturated fractures under evaporative conditions

Water dripping into subterranean cavities within fractured porous media is studied in order to improve estimates of dripping rates, drop sizes, and chemical composition of droplets that could affect long‐term integrity of waste disposal canisters placed in caverns. Steady state liquid flux in fracture surfaces supported by flow in partially liquid‐filled grooves and liquid films in adjacent planes was calculated as a function of the matric potential (vapor pressure) of the fracture. At an intersection of a vertical fracture with a wider cavity the liquid flux feeds a growing pendant drop that eventually detaches. Equilibrium state size and approximate shape of liquid drops suspended from the cavity ceiling were determined from lateral and vertical force balance considering capillarity, gravity, and hydrostatic pressure. A one‐dimensional, viscous extension model with appropriate gravitational and surface tension components was employed to determine dripping rate from specified fracture roughness geometry as a function of matric potential (flux). The effect of evaporation from drop surface during drop formation was incorporated; the resulting alterations in drop volume, dripping rate, and drop solute concentration were determined. To facilitate experimental testing of the proposed model, a decoupled solution that considers independently controlled flux and evaporation is presented. Under evaporative conditions, dripping in finite period is possible only when volumetric flux exceeds evaporative demand. Calculations indicate that dripping rate and solute concentration are extremely sensitive to ambient matric potential. The results of this work may be extended to study other phenomena including formation and growth of stalactites and rivulet flow in cave ceilings.

Three-dimensional Reconstruction of the Yaolin Cave

This paper reports on three-dimensional reconstruction of the Yaolin Cave in the Karst Region of Zhejiang, China. An object-oriented method was used to represent two cave classes—the class Boundary and the class Inside. The class Boundary included objects of the cave ceiling and the cave floor which are part of the topographical trend of the cave. This trend was determined by integrating topography with landform using TIN modeling. The inside of the cave with stalagmites, stalactites, dripstone-columns, and other objects was built using surveying data, photographs, and such computer graphics techniques as texture mapping and transparency. A stand-alone, 3-D visualization system—Cave3D—was developed on the Windows 98/NT platform to produce 3-D graphics and implement graphics-based computation, spatial query, and analyses. A virtual Yaolin cave was created using VRML97 and Java and posted on the Web.

It's a Very Private Picture

Michael D. Hall In the weeks since Bert Hemphill passed away in May of last year, I've spent considerable time thinking about this very special man and his influence on my life. Remembering Bert, I suddenly saw, in my mind's eye, one of the most paintings in his collection-Stag at Echo Rock. It is work that Bert referred to as a very private picture. My epiphany was the realization that in expressing my own private interpretation of this picture, I might publicly share my lasting impressions of Bert Hemphill and his many gifts. Stag is classic late-nineteenth-century folk art painting by an unknown artist. It depicts buck deer standing in the middle of country road that winds around rock formation, turns across bridge over small stream, and disappears into the woods beyond. At the lower right of the painting, the heads of two harnessed horses tentatively intrude into the scene. Winter snow blankets the landscape and the startled buck stands stiff legged in the center of the composition. Staring out at the viewer, the deer seems uncertain whether to freeze in the path of the oncoming horses, or to flee from them. Bert's favorite adjectives were wonderful and marvelous. He used them both every time he talked about Stag at Echo Rock. For it is, indeed, picture that inspires wonder, and one that prompts us to marvel at the inventive originality present in the best folk art. Bert profoundly identified with this painting and referred to it as one of the crown jewels of his collection. On another level, perhaps he understood it as visual metaphor for the whole of folk art. We will never really know what he saw, but revisiting this painting we can remember the Bert Hemphill I knew and loved-a man utterly absorbed in his own never-ending enterprise of self-invention and self-discovery. In my view, the deer that dominates Stag at Echo Rock is one of those awesome prototypical figures that ties folk art to the very nascence of art itself. The stag evokes our real and imagined memories of the bison and deer that swirl across the cave ceilings at Lascaux. The stag represents everything Bert admired in primitive art. It appears at Echo Rock like phantom-a creature like the unicorn, more fantastic than real. The stag is much like Bert: shy, elegant, magical. The stag is folk art the way Bert talked about it: mysterious, powerful, nimble, and elusive. There are other metaphors at work as well in the painting, particularly the tangled forest and the road. The road intrudes human presence and purpose into the landscape. The forest signals the mystery of nature-the natural realm where instinct rules. Bert loved art history and the control that great artists bring to their aesthetic endeavors-

History of the sedimentary infilling of Yarimburgaz Cave, Turkey

Yarimburgaz is a double cave with slightly offset upper and lower entrance chambers, connected laterally inside the cave. Below Byzantine and modern debris, the upper cave encloses Chalcolithic to Upper Paleolithic occupations above a beach sand attributed to the Last Interglacial. Below the beach sand, strongly modified sediments contain sparse Lower Paleolithic artifacts. The lower cave preserves only Lower Paleolithic industries, but with abundant cave bear and other fauna. Lower cave sediments (.5 m thick) comprise a lower, barren section of decalcification clays interfingering with alluvial fine sands, small gravel and rounded pebbles from the cave interior, and isolated limestone blocks from the cave ceiling. These sediments have been strongly affected by secondary phosphatization that fills vugs, cements the sediments, and produces thick reaction rinds on the large blocks. The upper 2 m of the fill becomes more rocky as the evidence of human and bear utilization of the cave becomes prominent. No habitation structures or hearths were detected in the lower cave. ESR and uranium-series dating suggests an age between .160 and 390 ka for the lower cave occupations. Apparently the cave was wide open to the exterior at that time. The final phase of filling was characterized by abundant angular limestone blocks, suggestive of earthquake disturbance. © 1997

The influence of cave topography on the spatial patterning of stone artefacts: A GIS assisted study in horizontal taphonomy at Petzkes Cave, northern New South Wales

Spatial patterns of artefacts produced by purposeful human behaviour are often, if not always, affected by subsequent disturbance processes. The precise effects of these disturbances on spatial patterning must be understood and identified before interpretation in terms of human behaviour can proceed. In cave sites there is also reason to believe that the effects of disturbance processes are concentrated in space by aspects of cave topography, such as the shape of walls and overhang, ceiling height, and sediment compaction. This research project aims to establish the extent to which the spatial pattern of stone artefacts at Petzkes Cave is the result of two types of disturbance, human trampling and drip-line run-off, operating under the influence of these aspects of cave topography. A model is developed from the literature which predicts the frequency and average size of artefacts expected to occur in spatial 'zones' defined by particular conditions of cave topography, from the action of human trampling and drip-line disturbance. The exact spatial positions of individual artefacts were recorded during excavation using an EDM theodolite, and the topography at Petzkes Cave was subsequently mapped by taking point measurements of ceiling height using the EDM and sediment compaction using a home-made penetrometer. An innovative aspect of the study is the use of a Geographical Information System (GIS) to electronically capture and recreate both cave topography and the artefact distribution in three dimensional space. This facility makes it possible to test the model by providing a means to link the spatial distribution of artefacts directly to cave topography. To verify the human trampling component of the model, a trampling experiment was conducted at the site. This confirms that cave topography, especially ceiling height, does indeed influence the spatial distribution and size-sorting of stone artefacts produced by human trampling. The horizontal displacement of artefacts is greater in areas of the cave with a high ceiling, where human movement is not restricted. Larger artefacts are displaced more than smaller artefacts, presumably because they are more likely to be scuffed by passing feet. Sediment compaction also influences lateral displacement of artefacts, but only in areas of the cave where ceiling height allows people to walk freely. The experimental results were used to refine the model, and the predictions of the refined model were then sought in the excavated sample at Petzkes Cave. The match found is sufficiently close to conclude that the spatial pattern of stone artefacts at Petzkes Cave is mainly the result of human trampling and drip-line disturbance operating under the control of cave topography. Drip-line disturbance is the dominant factor, creating dense artefact clusters along the drip-line; but, as in the experimental results, there is also a strong inverse relationship between artefact frequency/weight over space and cave ceiling height which can be linked to human trampling disturbance. In fact, the demonstrated influence of cave topography on the effects of such ubiquitous disturbance processes suggests that the spatial patterns of stone artefacts found in most caves will be extremely site-specific, reflecting variations in local topography as much as the original patterns produced by purposeful human behaviour. These findings suggest that Petzkes and other cave sites are inappropriate for the spatial study of discrete human activities.  Â