Secondary Causes Of Headache Research Articles

Secondary Headaches During Pregnancy: When to Worry.

Headaches in pregnancy are a frequent cause of worry for both patients and healthcare providers. Physiological changes during this period increase the risk of a number of secondary headache disorders, and often also have an impact on primary headache disorders. This article reviews recent research into distinguishing worrisome vs non-worrisome headache presentations during pregnancy. Recent research suggests that secondary causes of headache are highly prevalent during pregnancy, in between 25 and 42.4% of women seeking medical attention. Secondary causes of headache in pregnancy are most commonly homeostatic disturbances and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, vascular problems, space-occupying lesions, and infections. Migraine itself also increases the risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Specific red flags for a secondary cause of headache in pregnancy include absence of any headache history, more severe pain, systemic features such as elevated blood pressure, and abnormal laboratory tests including thrombocytopenia or thrombocytosis, elevated liver function tests, elevated C-reactive protein, or proteinuria, in addition to traditional red flags, such as a change in headache pattern. Secondary causes of headache are common in women seeking medical attention during pregnancy. Red flags for secondary causes of headache during pregnancy may be remembered with the mnemonic PREGNANT HA (proteinuria, rapid onset, elevated blood pressure or temperature, gestational age in third trimester, neurological signs or symptoms, altered level of consciousness, no headache history or known history of a secondary headache disorder, thrombocytopenia or thrombocytosis, high liver function tests or CRP, or agonizingly severe pain). Increased education of patients and their providers may help improve selection of patients for workup of a secondary cause.

Evaluation and Management of the Emergency Department Headache.

The acute headache in the emergency department (ED) poses a diagnostic dilemma that may overwhelm providers attempting to weigh the cost of advanced workups against the risk of missing serious pathology. While the majority of headache concerns are benign primary headache disorders, identifying life-threatening secondary causes of headache-which may be broadly categorized into structural, infectious, and vascular causes-is the primary focus of evaluation in the ED. Secondary headaches are associated with a high morbidity and mortality, and require strict scrutiny of the history and physical examination to adequately risk-stratify patients. Innovative and emerging technologies may further assist providers in the diagnosis of headache, and challenge previous gold-standard diagnostic evaluations. Herein, we present a general overview of the workup and management of headaches in the ED, with a special section for diagnostic considerations in evaluating for acute meningitis, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and acute angle-closure glaucoma.

White matter diffusion abnormalities in migraine and medication overuse headache: A 1.5-T tract-based spatial statistics study

ObjectivesMigraine and medication overuse headache are common, but its pathophysiology remains unclear. Differential diagnosis of chronic headache is still challenging. Conventional brain imaging techniques exclude secondary causes of headache but cannot produce a proper diagnosis. Accordingly, more sensitive diagnostic methods are needed for certain diagnosis. In the present study, we performed voxel-wise tract-based spatial statistics of 1.5-T diffusion tensor imaging in migraine patients and healthy volunteers. Patients and methodsOne hundred and three migraine patents and 46 healthy volunteers were registered. The fractional anisotropy values in the white matter of each group compared to age-matched healthy volunteers. ResultsCompared to the controls, the migraine without aura with medication overuse headache had remarkable fractional anisotropy decrease in the white matter in several regions. The migraine with aura without medication overuse headache also had significant fractional anisotropy decrease compared to the controls. The disease duration and frequency of migraine attack were not correlated with fractional anisotropy values of the corpus callosum. ConclusionOur 1.5-T DTI study demonstrated significantly lower fractional anisotropy in the white matter in the MoA with medication overuse headache and MwA without medication overuse headache groups, suggesting that fractional anisotropy abnormalities may be useful biomarkers in headache patients.

Unnecessary Neuroimaging for Patients With Primary Headaches.

Background - Headache may be due to either a primary or secondary disorder, and neuroimaging assessments can play an important role when differentiating between these types of headache. Although many studies have reported no significant differences between primary headache patients and the general population in terms of abnormal neuroimaging findings, others have shown that neuroimaging may be employed to rule out secondary causes of headache that could impact morbidity and mortality. This issue remains under debate. Thus, the present study compared the neuroimaging findings of headache patients and healthy controls. Methods - This study recruited 1070 healthy controls and 1070 primary headache patients from the Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital. The primary headache patients were diagnosed by computerized clinical decision support systems, and re-diagnosed by a specialist. All participants were assessed with either computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The neuroimaging findings were classified as significant abnormalities, non-significant abnormalities, or normal. Results - All the significant abnormalities were found using MRI scans. Significant abnormalities were identified in 4 primary headache patients (0.58%) and 5 healthy controls (0.73%); the rate of significant abnormalities was not significant different between both groups (P > .05). Conclusions - The present study found that neuroimaging was unnecessary for the primary headache patients.

Imaging Post-Traumatic Headache

Headache is a frequent and debilitating symptom after mild traumatic brain injury, yet little is known about its pathophysiology and most effective treatments. The goal of this review is to summarize findings from imaging studies used during the clinical evaluation and research investigation of post-traumatic headache (PTH). There are no published recommendations or guidelines for when to acquire imaging studies of the head or neck in patients with PTH. Clinical acumen is required to determine if imaging is needed to assess for a secondary cause of headache which may have been precipitated or unmasked by the trauma. Several guidelines for when to image the patient with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in the emergency setting consider headache among the deciding factors. In the research arena, imaging techniques including proton spectroscopy magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, magnetic resonance morphometry, and functional neck x-rays have been employed with the goal of identifying diagnostic and prognostic factors for PTH and to help understand its underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms. Results indicate that changes in regional cortical thickness and damage to specific white matter tracts warrant further research. Future research should interrogate whether these imaging findings contribute to the classification and prognosis of PTH. Current research provides evidence that imaging findings associated with PTH may be distinct from those attributable to mTBI. A variety of imaging techniques have potential to further our understanding of the pathophysiologic processes underlying PTH as well as to provide diagnostic and prognostic indicators. However, considerable work must be undertaken for this to be realized.

Invasive Sphenoid Sinus Aspergillosis Presenting Hemicrania Continua-Like Headache

Hemicrania continua (HC) is an indomethacin-responsive primary headache. Owing to continuous unilateral headache and clinical rarity, a great attention should be paid during the diagnosis of HC to exclude secondary causes of headache. Various pathologies have been described for HC-like headache. We describe a 64-year old man with invasive sphenoid sinus aspergillosis who presented continuous unilateral headache, trigeminal autonomic symptoms and response to oral indomethacin 225 mg/day. He was treated with intranasal ethmoidectomy and antifungal agent, and his headache has greatly improved. Key Words: Aspergillosis, Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, Headache

Benign Headache Management in the Emergency Department

BackgroundHeadache is a common complaint managed in the emergency department (ED), with emergency physicians focusing on evaluation for life-threatening conditions while treating pain and nausea. ObjectiveThis review evaluates the treatment of benign, primary headaches in the ED, with recommendations provided based on the literature. DiscussionHeadaches are a major cause of disability in the United States and a common condition managed in the ED. The primary objectives of emergency evaluation of these patients include evaluation for a life-threatening, secondary cause of headache, with treatment of primary headaches. Close evaluation for a secondary cause of headache include consideration of red flags and focused neurologic examination. The diagnosis of primary headaches is clinical. Literature has evaluated medication efficacy in headache treatment, with antidopaminergic medications demonstrating high rates of efficacy when used in combination with nonsteroidal inflammatory drugs or acetaminophen. Dexamethasone can be used for the reduction of headache recurrence. If dehydration is present, intravenous fluids should be provided. Diphenhydramine is not recommended for analgesia but may reduce akathisia associated with prochlorperazine. Ketamine, propofol, and nerve blocks demonstrate promise. Triptan agents are also efficacious, provided absence of contraindications. Most patients are appropriate for discharge with pain improvement. ConclusionsA variety of medications is available for the treatment of primary headaches in the ED. Antidopaminergic agents demonstrate the highest efficacy and should be provided with acetaminophen and nonsteroidal inflammatory drugs. Dexamethasone may reduce headache recurrence. Other treatments include ketamine, propofol, and nerve blocks.

CLINICAL PROFILE OF RECURRENT HEADACHE IN RURAL CHILDREN OF RAJASTHAN: A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY

Context: Recurrent headache is a commonly encountered clinical entity in rural children. Aims: This study aims to record the clinical profile of recurrent headache in rural children of Rajasthan. Settings and Design: A cross-sectional, observational study in a pediatric outpatient department of a tertiary care teaching hospital. Methods and Materials: A total of 164 children of either sex, between 5 and 17 years of age, presenting with complaints of a recurrent headache were included in the study. All relevant clinical details collected from patients and their relatives were recorded in a structured pro forma. A detailed examination was performed to rule out underlying problems associated with a headache. Headache subtypes were classified according to the International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition beta, 2013. Pediatric migraine disability assessment test score and Faces pain rating scale were utilized to assess the disability and severity, respectively. Statistical analysis involved summarizing the continuous variables as mean and standard deviation while nominal/categorical variables were expressed as percentages. Results: The mean age was 11.5 years and the M:F ratio was 1:1.1. Adolescents in 13–17 years age group constituted 61.5% (n=101) of the study sample with 58.4% (n=59) female subjects. Primary headaches - tension-type headache (n=77, 46.9%), migraine (n=43, 26.2%), and new daily persistent headache (n=5, 3%) were observed in 125 (76.1%) cases. Common causes of secondary headache were somatization disorder (n=27, 16.5%), ophthalmic problems (n=7, 4.3%), medication overuse (n=3, 1.9%), intracranial tumor (n=1, 0.6), and postictal (n=1, 0.6). Conclusions: Recurrent headache in rural children has distinct etiological profile which mandates a meticulous evaluation for initiating appropriate management.

Common Primary and Secondary Causes of Headache in the Elderly.

Headache in the elderly, defined as individuals aged 65 and older, although less prevalent than younger individuals, can present as a diagnostic challenge, given the increase in potentially fatal diseases within this population. These individuals require a complete history, neurological examination, and assessment of potential secondary causes of headaches. Secondary causes include temporal or giant cell arteritis, subdural hematomas, central nervous system (CNS) tumors, strokes, and CNS infections. Once secondary conditions are ruled out, then primary causes of headache are considered such as tension-type headache, migraine, cluster headache, or hypnic headache. This article reviews the distinguishing characteristics of the most common types of headache in patients over the age of 65 years old, along with potential diagnostic tests and treatment.

Clinical profile of chronic daily headache in patient attending tertiary centre

Background: The frequent headache syndrome is among the most challenging disorder that conforms clinician on a routine basis. A major problem with the relatively new form chronic daily headache (CDH) has been its confusion with chronic tension type headache (CTTH) and other community used term for which there have never been operational diagnosable criteria or even informal clinical criteria. The medical literature is replete with example over the past three decades in which the terms mixed headache combined headache tension headache; vascular headache and rebound headache are used interchangeably by interference. CDH became synonymous in many clinical setting with CTTH or inconvenient vascular or migrainous features or medication overuse. Now CDH is well described in literature with defined classification. Hence, the researcher is used to interested what is the burden and proportion of the various type of CDH. Aims and Objectives: Primary aim of this exploratory prospective study was to study the incidence of primary headache and secondary headache which were CDH in patient attending neurology outpatient department, to study the incidence of type of primary headache, the cause of secondary headache, the age wise distribution and sex wise attribution of CDH and to study the impact of family history, occupation and precipitating factor on CDH. Materials and Methods: In our study, a total of 626 cases fulfilling the International Headache Society-4th revised criteria comprising inclusion and exclusion criteria were included after informed consent, meticulous history taking pertaining to headache, in particular, thorough examinations and relevant laboratory investigations, and were certified by one neurologist. Results: Primary headache including migraine, tension-type headache, Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache with conjunctival injection, new daily persistent headache, and medication overuse headache was the most common headache that caused CDH. Neurocysticercosis was leading cause of a secondary headache that leads to CDH. Light, fast, and stress were leading precipitants associated with CDH. Conclusion: CDH was mostly associated with primary headache over the secondary headache. Chronic migraine was leading cause of CDH in comparison to CTTH. Females were more affected both in chronic migraine and CTTH. Family history was more positive in case of chronic migraine. Vomiting nausea, photophobia, and phonophobia vertigo were leading symptoms associated with CDH whereas light, fast, and stress were leading precipitants associated with CDH.

Approach to headache in ophthalmic practice

Headache is one of the most commonly experienced of all the physical discomforts. About half of the adults have a headache in a given year. Headaches can occur as a result of many conditions. Ophthalmologists are often the first physicians to evaluate patients with headaches, eye pain, and headache-associated visual disturbances. The evidence in the literature for a strong association between oculovisual problems and headache is weak. Still, patients who believe that appropriate ocular examination and treatment help to lessen their headache visit ophthalmologists very frequently. Although ophthalmic causes are sometimes diagnosed, eye pain and visual disturbances are often neurologic in origin. Many primary headache disorders have ophthalmic features, and secondary causes of headache frequently involve the visual system. Both afferent and efferent symptoms and signs are associated with headache disorders. Moreover, the frontal or retroorbital pain of some primary ophthalmic conditions may be mistaken for a headache disorder, particularly if the ophthalmologic examination is normal. This review summarizes the common causes of headache encountered in ophthalmic practice and the red flag signs which need referral to other specialists.

Headache in Resource-Limited Settings.

This review summarizes the unmet need of headache burden and management in resource-limited settings. It provides a general overview of the nuances and peculiarities of headache disorders in resource-limited settings. The review delivers perspectives and explanations for the emerging burden of both primary and secondary headache disorders. Important discussion on demographic and epidemiologic transition pertinent to low-resource settings is included. A critical analysis of headache disorders is made within the context of growing burden non-communicable disorders in low-resource countries. Challenges are examined and prospective feasible solutions tailored to existing resources are provided to address headache disorders in resource-limited settings. Many low-resource countries are entering into the third epidemiological transition featuring increasing burden of non-communicable disorders of which headache disorders contribute a significant proportion. Exponential population growth involving youthful demographic and massive rural-urban migration is taking place in low-resource countries. Youthful demographic is the natural cohort for primary headache such as migraine. Socioeconomic mobility and lifestyle changes are leading to higher levels of physical inactivity and obesity, both of which are related to headache. Life expectancy is rising in some resource-restricted countries; this increases prevalence of secondary headache attributed to neurovascular causes. Many low-resource countries are still burdened with tropical infectious causes of secondary headache. Health care facilities are primarily designed to respond to infectious epidemic and not to chronic burden such as headache. Many low-resource-restricted settings are plagued by poor and corrupt governance, ill-equipped regimes with malfunctioning health policies, war, and poverty. Many low-resource settings do not have access to generic headache medications such as triptans. Headache training and expertise is low. Healthy lifestyle changes emphasizing on improving regular exercise can be inexpensive method to reducing primary headache burden and its comorbidities (e.g. obesity). Addressing the increasing burden of headache disorders in resource-limited settings is important to avert accrued disability which in turn lowers productivity and socioeconomic performance in a young booming population.

Tension-Type Headache: Acute and Preventive Therapies

Tension-type headache (TTH) is an incredibly common condition. The clinician should be careful to distinguish TTH from migraine and from causes of secondary headache. The importance of regular sleep, nutrition, hydration, and appropriate management of life stressors cannot be overemphasized. The mainstays of abortive pharmacologic therapy for TTH are the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Most of these drugs are thought to have roughly equivalent efficacies based on many older clinical trials and more recent meta-analyses. The side effects of this drug class can be severe and include renal toxicity and gastrointestinal bleeding; these drugs may also increase cardiovascular risk. Tricyclic antidepressants are thought to be the most effective preventive therapy for TTH, particularly amitriptyline. Other antidepressant medications as well as muscle relaxants may also be beneficial in some patients. A number of other nonpharmacologic and procedural therapies exist, although the evidence supporting the use of these treatments is variable. However, in many patients, these other modalities can be helpful therapeutic adjuncts. In this review, we also discuss the evidence base for physical therapy, acupuncture, trigger-point injections, massage therapy, and psychological therapy.

Intracranial hypotension: An uncommon entity with common presentation

Headache disorders are among the most common presenting complaints in any neurology outpatient department. International Headache Society classifies headaches as “primary” or “secondary”. The causes of secondary headaches are varied and intracranial hypotension is one of them. It typically presents clinically with postural headaches but most of the times, its diagnosis is delayed, as it is an uncommon cause and there is poor awareness among the medical fraternity about this condition. Imaging, especially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), plays a crucial role in the diagnosis of intracranial hypotension by not only confirming the diagnosis but also detecting the cause in some cases. This case series tries to highlight the MRI findings of intracranial hypotension in three cases with different etiologies.

Headache in the Emergency Room

Headache is seen in the emergency room (ER) on a daily basis and is a vague symptom, which can be a part of many different types of conditions and diseases. Although most people who come to the ER will have a benign headache, it is important to make sure that dangerous causes of headache are ruled out. There are a number of features that may alert someone to a secondary cause of headache. This article highlights two specific secondary headache syndromes, including carotid dissection and reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome. It also broadly points out other possible causes of secondary headache. The last section focuses on a common primary headache that presents to the ER, migraine and its treatment.

Headache in the Emergency Room

Headache is seen in the emergency room (ER) on a daily basis and is a vague symptom, which can be a part of many different types of conditions and diseases. Although most people who come to the ER will have a benign headache, it is important to make sure that dangerous causes of headache are ruled out. There are a number of features that may alert someone to a secondary cause of headache. This article highlights two specific secondary headache syndromes, including carotid dissection and reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome. It also broadly points out other possible causes of secondary headache. The last section focuses on a common primary headache that presents to the ER, migraine and its treatment.

Tension-Type Headache: Acute and Preventive Therapies

Tension-type headache (TTH) is an incredibly common condition. The clinician should be careful to distinguish TTH from migraine and from causes of secondary headache. The importance of regular sleep, nutrition, hydration, and appropriate management of life stressors cannot be overemphasized. The mainstays of abortive pharmacologic therapy for TTH are the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Most of these drugs are thought to have roughly equivalent efficacies based on many older clinical trials and more recent meta-analyses. The side effects of this drug class can be severe and include renal toxicity and gastrointestinal bleeding; these drugs may also increase cardiovascular risk. Tricyclic antidepressants are thought to be the most effective preventive therapy for TTH, particularly amitriptyline. Other antidepressant medications as well as muscle relaxants may also be beneficial in some patients. A number of other nonpharmacologic and procedural therapies exist, although the evidence supporting the use of these treatments is variable. However, in many patients, these other modalities can be helpful therapeutic adjuncts. In this review, we also discuss the evidence base for physical therapy, acupuncture, trigger-point injections, massage therapy, and psychological therapy.

Tension-Type Headache: Acute and Preventive Therapies

Tension-type headache (TTH) is an incredibly common condition. The clinician should be careful to distinguish TTH from migraine and from causes of secondary headache. The importance of regular sleep, nutrition, hydration, and appropriate management of life stressors cannot be overemphasized. The mainstays of abortive pharmacologic therapy for TTH are the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Most of these drugs are thought to have roughly equivalent efficacies based on many older clinical trials and more recent meta-analyses. The side effects of this drug class can be severe and include renal toxicity and gastrointestinal bleeding; these drugs may also increase cardiovascular risk. Tricyclic antidepressants are thought to be the most effective preventive therapy for TTH, particularly amitriptyline. Other antidepressant medications as well as muscle relaxants may also be beneficial in some patients. A number of other nonpharmacologic and procedural therapies exist, although the evidence supporting the use of these treatments is variable. However, in many patients, these other modalities can be helpful therapeutic adjuncts. In this review, we also discuss the evidence base for physical therapy, acupuncture, trigger-point injections, massage therapy, and psychological therapy.

Imaging of Headache in Pregnancy.

Pregnant women are most likely to have primary headaches, such as migraine and tension-type headaches, which can be diagnosed and treated without brain imaging. Primary headaches may even start de novo during pregnancy, especially in the first few months. However, when the headache occurs late in pregnancy or in the peripartum period, secondary causes of headaches need to be considered and evaluated by brain and/or vascular imaging, generally using magnetic resonance techniques. There is considerable overlap between the cerebrovascular complications of pregnancy, including preeclampsia/eclampsia, posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES), reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS), and both hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes; although, their imaging may be distinctive. Imaging is necessary to distinguish between arterial and venous pathology causing headache in the peripartum patient, as there can be similar presenting symptoms. Mass lesions, both neoplastic and inflammatory, can enlarge and produce headaches and neurological symptoms late in pregnancy.

Thunderclap Headache Secondary to Pneumocephalus Following Epidural Anesthesia

A 33-year-old woman presented in labor at 41 weeks of gestation. She received epidural anesthesia and developed a thunderclap headache immediately after the injection. The pain was of sudden onset, described as 10 of 10 in intensity and pressure in quality. It was the “worst headache” of her life. It was located in the top of the head and radiated to the right side when she laid on her left. There was no associated nausea, emesis, photophobia, phonophobia, visual changes, or other neurologic symptoms. Neurologic examination was normal. An emergent noncontrast computed tomography of the head showed extensive pneumocephalus without other abnormalities (Figure 1). The patient was treated with butorphanol with significant improvement in pain. She was able to deliver a healthy newborn, and the headache resolved by the next morning. Figure 1. Noncontrast computed tomography of the head at the level of the basal nuclei (left) and midbrain (right) demonstrates extensive supra and infratentorial pneumocephalus. Both abrupt onset and a new headache during pregnancy are considered red flags for secondary headache disorders.1 Potential causes in this scenario include subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral vein thrombosis, pituitary apoplexy, and posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome.2 Headache can rarely occur after epidural anesthesia, and it is often attributed to intracranial hypotension due to leakage of cerebrospinal fluid.3 Although the incidence of pneumocephalus after epidural anesthesia is unknown, it seems to be a very rare complication, as the available evidence is limited to case reports.4,5 Pneumocephalus should be considered as a cause of secondary headache in pregnancy, particularly if pain develops immediately after epidural anesthesia. In most patients, the headache resolves with conservative measures.