Cause Of Mass Extinction Research Articles

Niche conservatism and ecological change during the Late Devonian mass extinction.

Studies of the fossil record can inform our understanding of not only the causes of mass extinctions, but also their effects on biodiversity, ecology and evolution. Here, we examine regional-scale ecological changes resulting from a Late Devonian mass extinction event using brachiopod fossil assemblages from the Appalachian Basin. About half of the species went extinct, but were largely replaced by new immigrant taxa. Both before and after the extinction, the primary gradient in faunal composition was correlated with onshore-offshore position, with a second gradient attributed to frequency of disturbance. Survivors of the extinction displayed a strong degree of niche conservatism along these gradients. Despite these indicators of ecological stability, the pre- and post-extinction faunas were quite distinct at the order level, with atrypids and strophomenids largely replaced by productids, whose spiny shells may have provided greater resistance to disturbance and/or predation. Thus, extinction survivors persisted in similar ecological niches despite environmental perturbations and considerable change in the taxonomic and ecological composition of the regional species pool.

Prodigious shift in provenance across Permian-Triassic Boundary at Guryul Ravine Section, Kashmir, Tethys Himalaya, India: Evidences from Sr and Nd isotopes

The Permian-Triassic Boundary (PTB) section (Late Permian Zewan Formation and Early Triassic Khunamuh Formation) at Guryul Ravine (Kashmir, India) preserves potentially important information about the depositional conditions and provenance changes across the PTB. Several palaeobiological, sedimentological and geochemical studies have been conducted on this archetypal section to understand the causes of mass extinction at the PTB, however no integrated chemo-stratigraphic study focusing on provenance and geodynamics has been attempted. In the present study, samples from a 36 m thick interval across the PTB are analysed for major and trace element concentrations, Sr-, Nd- and Corg isotope geochemistry along with TOC (total organic carbon) contents to understand the contemporary environmental and provenance changes. The Late Permian Zewan Formation have relatively low chemical index of alteration (CIA) values (55–77) and low αAlCa (0.1–12.6), αAlNa (0.7–9.6), αAlMg (1.0–6.1) values, implying moderate weathering conditions; whereas the Early Triassic sediments of overlying Khunamuh Formation show higher CIA (69–79) and αAlCa (1.4–14.0), αAlNa (2.2–11.5), αAlMg (2.0–6.4) values indicating more intense chemical weathering conditions. The vertical profiles of δ13Corg, δ34Spyr and various redox-indicators suggest euxinic-anoxic condition during the latest Permian, and show a significant change in depositional conditions from anoxic to oxic across the PTB. The significant finding of the present study is the dramatic change of Sr- and Nd isotopic compositions across the PTB, indicating remarkable shift in provenance. The Late Permian samples show much less-radiogenic ɛNd(0) (avg. –15.27), radiogenic 87Sr/S6Sr(0) (avg. 0.72409) and older TDM ages (1.35–1.56 Ga) compared to the early Triassic samples (avg. εNd(0) = −9.49,87Sr/S6Sr(0) = 0.719282, TDM = 1.71–1.76 Ga). The εNd(0) and 87Sr/S6Sr(0) composition of Late Permian rocks overlap with the signatures of Tethyan Himalaya and Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Marwar Supergroup of NW India, indicating similar old cratonic sources. Higher εNd(0), younger TDM ages and lower 87Sr/86Sr(0) in Triassic samples suggest contribution from juvenile sources and Panjal volcanics, Cadimian arc of Cimmeria or African-Nubian shield could be the likely source terrains.

U-Pb zircon age constraints on the earliest eruptions of the Deccan Large Igneous Province, Malwa Plateau, India

Climate instability driven by emission of volatiles during emplacement of large igneous provinces (LIPs) is frequently invoked as a potential cause of mass extinctions. However, documenting this process in the geologic record requires a holistic understanding of eruption rates, the location of eruptive centers, and potential sources of climate-changing volatiles. We present new chemical abrasion–isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass spectrometry (CA-ID-TIMS) U-Pb zircon geochronology from Malwa Plateau basalts on the northern margin of the Deccan LIP, India. These basalts have been previously interpreted as either an extension of the province's main volcanic stratigraphy or as an independent eruptive center active up to millions of years prior to the main eruptive phase. Our data instead demonstrate that the lower Malwa Plateau basalts are temporally correlative with the first pulse of Deccan volcanism and provide new constraints on its initiation and duration. Paleomagnetic data further indicate that upper Malwa Plateau basalts may be age-equivalent to the second, third, and fourth pulses of Deccan volcanism. The relative thicknesses of age-equivalent packages of basalt are consistent with eruption of the Deccan LIP from a southward-migrating eruptive center. The first eruptive pulse is coeval with a ∼200 kyr Late Maastrichtian warming event preserved globally in contemporaneous stratigraphic sections. We propose that the first pulse of Deccan magmatism was more voluminous in the north, where it erupted through organic-rich sedimentary rocks of the Narmada-Tapti rift basin. Thermal metamorphism of these sediments could have been a source of sufficient CO2 to drive the Late Maastrichtian warming event, which if true would reconcile the apparent dampened warming signals associated with later Deccan eruptive pulses.

Deciphering mass extinction triggers.

Improved radioisotope dates help to illuminate the causes of mass extinctions

Environmental conditions as the cause of the great mass extinction of marine organisms in the Late Devonian

During the Late Devonian extinction, 70–82% of all marine species disappeared. The main causes of this mass extinction include tectonic activity, climate and sea-level fluctuations, volcanism, and the collision of the Earth with cosmic bodies (impact events). The major causes are considered to be volcanism accompanying formation of the Viluy traps and, probably, basaltic magmatism in the Southern Urals, alkaline magmatism within the East European platform, and volcanism in northern Iran and northern and southern China. Several large impact craters of Late Devonian age have been documented in different parts of the world. The available data indicate that this time period on the Earth was marked by two major sequences of events: terrestrial events that resulted in extensive volcanism and cosmic (or impact) events. They produced similar effects such as emissions of harmful chemical compounds and aerosols to cause greenhouse warming and the darkening of the atmosphere, which prevented photosynthesis and cause ocean stagnation and anoxia. This disrupted the food chain and reduced ecosystem productivity. As a result, all vital processes were disturbed and a large part of the marine biota became extinct.

Latest Cretaceous climatic and environmental change in the South Atlantic region

Latest Maastrichtian climate change caused by Deccan volcanism has been invoked as a cause of mass extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary (~66.0 Ma). Yet late Maastrichtian climate and ecological changes are poorly documented, in particular on the Southern Hemisphere. Here we present upper Maastrichtian-lower Danian climate and biotic records from the Bajada del Jaguel (BJ) shelf site (Neuquen Basin, Argentina), employing the TEX86 paleothermometer, marine palynology (dinoflagellate cysts), and micropaleontology (foraminifera). These records are correlated to the astronomically tuned Ocean Drilling Program Site 1262 (Walvis Ridge). Collectively, we use these records to assess climatic and ecological effects of Deccan volcanism in the Southern Atlantic region. Both the TEX86-based sea surface temperature (SST) record at BJ and the bulk carbonate δ18O-based SST record of Site 1262 show a latest Maastrichtian warming of ~2.5–4°C, at 450 to 150 kyr before the K-Pg boundary, coinciding with the a large Deccan outpouring phase. Benthic foraminiferal and dinocyst assemblage changes indicate that this warming resulted in enhanced runoff and stratification of the water column, likely resulting from more humid climate conditions in the Neuquen Basin. These climate conditions could have been caused by an expanding and strengthening thermal low over the South American continent. Biotic changes in response to late Maastrichtian environmental changes are rather limited, when compared to the major turnovers observed at many K-Pg boundary sites worldwide. This suggests that environmental perturbations during the latest Maastrichtian warming event were less severe than those following the K-Pg boundary impact.

On the causes of mass extinctions

The temporal link between large igneous province (LIP) eruptions and at least half of the major extinctions of the Phanerozoic implies that large scale volcanism is the main driver of mass extinction. Here we review almost twenty biotic crises between the early Cambrian and end Cretaceous and explore potential causal mechanisms. Most extinctions are associated with global warming and proximal killers such as marine anoxia (including the Early/Middle Cambrian, the Late Ordovician, the intra-Silurian, intra-Devonian, end-Permian, and Early Jurassic crises). Many, but not all of these are accompanied by large negative carbon isotope excursions, supporting a volcanogenic origin. Most post-Silurian biocrises affected both terrestrial and marine biospheres, suggesting that atmospheric processes were crucial in driving global extinctions. Volcanogenic-atmospheric kill mechanisms include ocean acidification, toxic metal poisoning, acid rain, and ozone damage and consequent increased UV-B radiation, volcanic darkness, cooling and photosynthetic shutdown, each of which has been implicated in numerous events. Intriguingly, some of the most voluminous LIPs such as the oceanic plateaus of the Cretaceous were emplaced with minimal faunal losses and so volume of magma is not the only factor governing LIP lethality. The missing link might be continental configuration because the best examples of the LIP/extinction relationship occurred during the time of Pangaea. Many of the proximal kill mechanisms in LIP/extinction scenarios are also potential effects of bolide impact, including cooling, warming, acidification and ozone destruction. However, the absence of convincing temporal links between impacts and extinctions other than the Chicxulub-Cretaceous example, suggests that impacts are not the main driver of extinctions. With numerous competing extinction scenarios, and the realisation that some of the purported environmental stresses may once again be driving mass extinction, we explore how experimental biology might inform our understanding of ancient extinctions as well as future crises.

Climate Warming May Have Helped Kill the Dinosaurs

New evidence indicates ancient warming spells that coincided with prodigious volcanism and a powerful meteorite impact, both seen as possible causes of mass extinctions about 66 million years ago.

Redox conditions across the G–L boundary in South China: Evidence from pyrite morphology and sulfur isotopic compositions

The end-Guadalupian (middle Permian) mass extinction recorded the disappearance of shelf faunas such as fusulinids, small foraminifers, brachiopods, rugose corals which flourished in the warm shallow marine habitats after the late Pennsylvanian–early Permian glaciation. The causes for this mass extinction are still unclear. Marine anoxia, often as a cause for other mass extinctions, has been paid less attention in this extinction. Here we present a comprehensive study including pyrite morphology and sulfur isotopic compositions of pyrite across the Guadalupian–Lopingian (middle–upper Permian; G–L) boundary at Tianfengping in northern Yangtze Platform and at Penglaitan in southern Yangtze Platform in South China. Our results show that the sulfur isotope ratios of pyrite mainly track the framboid size distributions in these two sections. Anoxia and intermittent euxinia occur at the G–L boundary evidenced by the coincidence between reduction of framboid size and the extremely negative sulfur isotope values of pyrite involving disproportionation, and corresponds to the main mass extinction of the end-Guadalupian, suggesting a causal link between them. Long-term dysoxic conditions during the middle Capitanian are evidenced by the relative small framboid size and lower sulfur isotope ratios of pyrite, and coincide with the first pulse of the end-Guadalupian mass extinction, also suggesting a causal link between them. The oxygen-depletion conditions in the Capitanian during the global sea level falling may be the main cause for the end-Guadalupian mass extinction.

Anatomy of a Mass Murderer.

The article focuses on the contribution of volcanic explosions on Earth's mass extinctions. It discusses four large igneous provinces (LIPs) that contribute to extinctions of various species such as dinosaurs and marine species since 373 million years ago including Viluy Traps LIP, Siberian Traps LIP, and Central Atlantic LIP. It mentions several scientists who studied the cause of mass extinctions including geochronologists Seth Burgess, Samuel Bowring, and geophysicist Mark Richards.

Changes in environmental conditions as the cause of the marine biota Great Mass Extinction at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary

In the interval of the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, 80% of the marine species became extinct. Four main hypotheses about the causes of this mass extinction are considered: volcanism, climatic oscillations, sea level variations accompanied by anoxia, and asteroid impact events. The extinction was triggered by an extensive flooding of basalts in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. Furthermore, a number of meteoritic craters have been found. Under the effect of cosmic causes, two main sequences of events developed on the Earth: terrestrial ones, leading to intensive volcanism, and cosmic ones (asteroid impacts). Their aftermaths, however, were similar in terms of the chemical compounds and aerosols released. As a consequence, the greenhouse effect, dimming of the atmosphere (impeding photosynthesis), ocean stagnation, and anoxia emerged. Then, biological productivity decreased and food chains were destroyed. Thus, the entire ecosystem was disturbed and a considerable part of the biota became extinct.

Calcium and calcium isotope changes during carbon cycle perturbations at the end-Permian

Negative carbon and calcium isotope excursions, as well as climate shifts, took place during the most severe mass extinction event in Earth's history, the end-Permian (∼252 Ma). Investigating the connection between carbon and calcium cycles during transient carbon cycle perturbation events, such as the end-Permian, may help resolve the intricacies between the coupled calcium-carbon cycles, as well as provide a tool for constraining the causes of mass extinction. Here we identify the deficiencies of a simplified calcium model employed in several previous studies, and we demonstrate the importance of a fully coupled carbon cycle model when investigating the dynamics of carbon and calcium cycling. Simulations with a modified version of the Long-term Ocean-atmosphere-Sediment CArbon cycle Reservoir model, which includes a fully coupled carbon-calcium cycle, indicate that increased weathering rates and ocean acidification (potentially caused by Siberian Trap volcanism) are not capable of producing trends observed in the record, as previously claimed. Our model results suggest that combined effects of carbon input via Siberian Trap volcanism (12,000 Pg C), the cessation of biological carbon export, and variable calcium isotope fractionation (due to a change in the seawater carbonate ion concentration) represents a more plausible scenario. This scenario successfully reconciles δ13C and δ44Ca trends observed in the sediment record, as well as the proposed warming of >6°C.

CAN LIFE SURVIVE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS IN THE HIGH-REDSHIFT UNIVERSE?

Nearby Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) have been proposed as a possible cause of mass extinctions on Earth. Due to the higher event rate of GRBs at higher redshifts, it has been speculated that life as we know it may not survive above a certain redshift (e.g. $z>0.5$). We examine the duty cycle of lethal (life-threatening) GRBs in the solar neighborhood, in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) galaxies and GRB host galaxies, with the dependence of the long GRB rate on star formation and metallicity properly taken into account. We find that the number of lethal GRBs attacking Earth within the past 500 Myr ($\sim$ epoch of the Ordovician mass extinction) is $0.93$. The number of lethal GRBs hitting a certain planet increases with redshift, thanks to the increasing star formation rate and decreasing metallicity in high-$z$ galaxies. Taking 1 per 500 Myr as a conservative duty cycle for life to survive, as evidenced by our existence, we find that there are still a good fraction of SDSS galaxies beyond $z=0.5$ where the GRB rate at half-mass radius is lower than this value. We derive the fraction of such benign galaxies as a function of redshift through Monte Carlo simulations, and find that the fraction is $\sim 50\%$ at $z\sim 1.5$ and $\sim 10\%$ even at $z \sim 3$. The mass distribution of benign galaxies is dominated by Milky-Way-like ones, thanks to their commonness, relatively large mass, and low star formation rate. GRB host galaxies are among the most dangerous ones.

Abiotic causes of the great mass extinction of marine biota at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary

In the interval of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary up to 80% of marine species became extinct. The main hypotheses on the causes of this mass extinction are reviewed. The extinction was triggered by a powerful eruption of basalts in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. In addition, several impact craters have been found. Extraterrestrial factors resulted in two main sequences of events: terrestrial, leading to strong volcanism, and extraterrestrial (impact events). They produced similar effects: emissions of harmful chemical compounds and aerosols. Consequences included the greenhouse effect, darkening of the atmosphere (which prevented photosynthesis), stagnation of the oceans, and anoxia. Biological productivity decreased; food chains collapsed. As a result, all vital processes were disturbed, and a large portion of the biota went extinct.

Oxygen escape from the Earth during geomagnetic reversals: Implications to mass extinction

The evolution of life is affected by variations of atmospheric oxygen level and geomagnetic field intensity. Oxygen can escape into interplanetary space as ions after gaining momentum from solar wind, but Earth's strong dipole field reduces the momentum transfer efficiency and the ion outflow rate, except for the time of geomagnetic polarity reversals when the field is significantly weakened in strength and becomes Mars-like in morphology. The newest databases available for the Phanerozoic era illustrate that the reversal rate increased and the atmospheric oxygen level decreased when the marine diversity showed a gradual pattern of mass extinctions lasting millions of years. We propose that accumulated oxygen escape during an interval of increased reversal rate could have led to the catastrophic drop of oxygen level, which is known to be a cause of mass extinction. We simulated the oxygen ion escape rate for the Triassic–Jurassic event, using a modified Martian ion escape model with an input of quiet solar wind inferred from Sun-like stars. The results show that geomagnetic reversal could enhance the oxygen escape rate by 3–4 orders only if the magnetic field was extremely weak, even without consideration of space weather effects. This suggests that our hypothesis could be a possible explanation of a correlation between geomagnetic reversals and mass extinction. Therefore, if this causal relation indeed exists, it should be a “many-to-one” scenario rather the previously considered “one-to-one”, and planetary magnetic field should be much more important than previously thought for planetary habitability.

Geochemical constraints on the causes of mass extinctions

Geochemical constraints on the causes of mass extinctions

Mass spectrometry in Earth sciences: the precise and accurate measurement of time.

Precise determinations of the isotopic compositions of a variety of elements is a widely applied tool in Earth sciences. Isotope ratios are used to quantify rates of geological processes that occurred during the previous 4.5 billion years, and also at the present time. An outstanding application is geochronology, which utilizes the production of radiogenic daughter isotopes by the radioactive decay of parent isotopes. Geochronological tools, involving isotopic analysis of selected elements from smallest volumes of minerals by thermal ionization mass spectrometry, provide precise and accurate measurements of time throughout the geological history of our planet over nine orders of magnitude, from the accretion of the proto-planetary disk, to the timing of the last glaciation. This article summarizes the recent efforts of the Isotope Geochemistry, Geochronology and Thermochronology research group at the University of Geneva to advance the U-Pb geochronological tool to achieve unprecedented precision and accuracy, and presents two examples of its application to two significant open questions in Earth sciences: what are the triggers and timescales of volcanic supereruptions, and what were the causes of mass extinctions in the geological past, driven by global climatic and environmental deterioration?

Impact of ocean acidification on plankton larvae as a cause of mass extinctions in ammonites and belemnites

Impact of ocean acidification on plankton larvae as a cause of mass extinctions in ammonites and belemnites

Periodicities in the emplacement of large igneous provinces through the Phanerozoic: Relations to ocean chemistry and marine biodiversity evolution

Large igneous provinces (LIPs) are considered a relevant cause for mass extinctions of marine life throughout Earth’s history. Their flood basalts and associated intrusions can cause significant release of SO4 and CO2 and consequently, cause major environmental disruptions. Here, we reconstruct the long-term periodic pattern of LIP emplacement and its impact on ocean chemistry and biodiversity from δ34Ssulfate of the last 520 Ma under particular consideration of the preservation limits of LIP records. A combination of cross-wavelet and other time-series analysis methods has been applied to quantify a potential chain of linkage between LIP emplacement periodicity, geochemical changes and the Phanerozoic marine genera record. We suggest a mantle plume cyclicity represented by LIP volumes (V) of V=−(350–770)×103km3sin(2πt/170Ma)+(300–650)×103km3sin(2πt/64.5Ma+2.3) for t=time in Ma. A shift from the 64.5Ma to a weaker ∼28–35Ma LIP cyclicity during the Jurassic contributes together with probably independent changes in the marine sulfur cycle to less ocean anoxia, and a general stabilization of ocean chemistry and increasing marine biodiversity throughout the last ∼135Ma. The LIP cycle pattern is coherent with marine biodiversity fluctuations corresponding to a reduction of marine biodiversity of ∼120genera/Ma at ∼600×103km3 LIP eruption volume. The 62–65Ma LIP cycle pattern as well as excursion in δ34Ssulfate and marine genera reduction suggest a not-yet identified found LIP event at ∼440–450Ma.

Adaptive radiation of multituberculate mammals before the extinction of dinosaurs

The Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction approximately 66 million years ago is conventionally thought to have been a turning point in mammalian evolution. Prior to that event and for the first two-thirds of their evolutionary history, mammals were mostly confined to roles as generalized, small-bodied, nocturnal insectivores, presumably under selection pressures from dinosaurs. Release from these pressures, by extinction of non-avian dinosaurs at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, triggered ecological diversification of mammals. Although recent individual fossil discoveries have shown that some mammalian lineages diversified ecologically during the Mesozoic era, comprehensive ecological analyses of mammalian groups crossing the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary are lacking. Such analyses are needed because diversification analyses of living taxa allow only indirect inferences of past ecosystems. Here we show that in arguably the most evolutionarily successful clade of Mesozoic mammals, the Multituberculata, an adaptive radiation began at least 20 million years before the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs and continued across the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Disparity in dental complexity, which relates to the range of diets, rose sharply in step with generic richness and disparity in body size. Moreover, maximum dental complexity and body size demonstrate an adaptive shift towards increased herbivory. This dietary expansion tracked the ecological rise of angiosperms and suggests that the resources that were available to multituberculates were relatively unaffected by the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction. Taken together, our results indicate that mammals were able to take advantage of new ecological opportunities in the Mesozoic and that at least some of these opportunities persisted through the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction. Similar broad-scale ecomorphological inventories of other radiations may help to constrain the possible causes of mass extinctions.