Causes Of Different Types Research Articles

Towards a taxonomy of spatial scale‐dependence

Spatial scale‐dependence is a ubiquitous feature of ecological systems. This presents a challenge for ecologists who seek to discern general principles. A solution is to search for generalities in patterns of scale‐dependence – that is, what kinds of things are scale‐dependent, in what ways, and why? I argue that this is likely to be a productive way forward for ecology, but that progress in this direction is currently hindered by the conflation of a set of distinct concepts under the category of ‘scale‐dependence’. Here, I propose a taxonomy of spatial scale‐dependence that categorizes its major types in hopes of moving towards a more formal and unambiguous vocabulary. I argue that three major distinctions are necessary and sufficient for this goal: that between grain size and extent (the scale component), between data and models (the subject), and between true and perceived scale‐dependence (the class). I illustrate the need for these distinctions with a set of examples demonstrating causes of different types of scale‐dependence. I then describe how this taxonomy relates to an array of scale‐related concepts from other fields. Finally, I discuss the generalization that biotic interactions are most important at small scales in light of this taxonomy.

Firm Bankruptcy Probability and Causes: An Integrated Study

The objective of the study is to examine the impact of both the number and types of causes of business failure onthe failure risk as indicated by values of bankruptcy scores during the process of business decline. Causes ofbankruptcy were obtained from court judgments for 70 Estonian manufacturing firms and classified into twotaxonomies–the number of causes and the different types of causes of failure such as internal (differentmanagement deficiencies) or from factors external to the firm. Bankruptcy scores for the first and secondpre-bankruptcy years were calculated using both Ohlson’s model and a local (Grünberg’s) bankruptcy predictionmodel. Independent samples median tests were applied to examine, whether different causes are associated withdifferent failure risk. Findings indicate that multiple causes lead to a significantly higher bankruptcy risk than asingle cause for the year prior to the declaration of bankruptcy. On the contrary, no significant effect of differenttypes of failure causes was found on the risk of failure. Implications of the results for research and practice arediscussed.

G.P.240: Next Generation Sequencing reveals IGHMBP2 variants as a cause for distal hereditary motor neuronopathy in two children

IGHMBP2 variants are associated with autosomal recessive distal spinal muscular atrophy 1 and distal hereditary motor neuronopathy type VI (dHMN6). Here we present two patients with potentially pathogenic variants in IGHMBP2 gene. Case 1-A 16 year old male patient with a progressive distal weakness and deformity of both hands and feet which presented in childhood. He also had marked pain (possibly radicular in origin) mainly in toes and chest, which was severe enough to require opiates. His hands showed marked thenar and hypothenar loss of muscle bulk. Neurophysiological investigations revealed an active and partial chronic denervation. Initial genetic investigations did not reveal any abnormalities. His DNA was subsequently analysed by gene panel testing. Gene panel testing (simultaneous testing of 56 genes associated with the common and the rare causes of different types of inherited peripheral neuropathy) revealed a single heterozygous frameshift variant in exon 5 of the IGHMBP2 gene; c.661del, p. (Thr221Profs*12). No second variant was identified in this patient. It is likely to be pathogenic as it is expected to cause premature truncation of the mRNA, leading either to the production of a non-functional protein, or no protein product from that allele due to nonsense mediated decay. Case 2 -A 12 year old female presented with gait problems, clumsiness, and recurrent falls at the age of 5 years. Neurophysiological investigations revealed a demyelinating neuropathy. Her initial gene testing was negative. Her DNA was subsequently analysed by gene panel testing. Two heterozygous frameshift variants were detected in the IGHMBP2 gene; c.2356delG, p. (Ala786Profs*45) in exon 13, and c.2911_2912delAG, p. (Arg971Glufs*4) in exon 15. Parents of the proband were tested and each was found to be heterozygous for one IGHMBP2 variant, confirming that the two variants are in trans in their daughter. Further studies will be needed to establish pathogenicity. IGHMBP2 variants are associated with autosomal recessive distal spinal muscular atrophy 1 and distal hereditary motor neuronopathy type VI (dHMN6). Here we present two patients with potentially pathogenic variants in IGHMBP2 gene. Case 1-A 16 year old male patient with a progressive distal weakness and deformity of both hands and feet which presented in childhood. He also had marked pain (possibly radicular in origin) mainly in toes and chest, which was severe enough to require opiates. His hands showed marked thenar and hypothenar loss of muscle bulk. Neurophysiological investigations revealed an active and partial chronic denervation. Initial genetic investigations did not reveal any abnormalities. His DNA was subsequently analysed by gene panel testing. Gene panel testing (simultaneous testing of 56 genes associated with the common and the rare causes of different types of inherited peripheral neuropathy) revealed a single heterozygous frameshift variant in exon 5 of the IGHMBP2 gene; c.661del, p. (Thr221Profs*12). No second variant was identified in this patient. It is likely to be pathogenic as it is expected to cause premature truncation of the mRNA, leading either to the production of a non-functional protein, or no protein product from that allele due to nonsense mediated decay. Case 2 -A 12 year old female presented with gait problems, clumsiness, and recurrent falls at the age of 5 years. Neurophysiological investigations revealed a demyelinating neuropathy. Her initial gene testing was negative. Her DNA was subsequently analysed by gene panel testing. Two heterozygous frameshift variants were detected in the IGHMBP2 gene; c.2356delG, p. (Ala786Profs*45) in exon 13, and c.2911_2912delAG, p. (Arg971Glufs*4) in exon 15. Parents of the proband were tested and each was found to be heterozygous for one IGHMBP2 variant, confirming that the two variants are in trans in their daughter. Further studies will be needed to establish pathogenicity.

Syndicated Credit Cut and Firm Performance

We employ a unique data set that tracks the changes of each lender’s share commitment in each syndicated credit facility in each year to study the relationship between credit cuts and the borrowing firms’ future performance. Overcoming the crucial data limitations in prior empirical studies of loan sales and securitization, our data set allows us to differentiate between different types of credit cuts (e.g., credit sale vs. credit reduction, loan sale vs. loan reduction, credit cuts by agent and non-agent lenders, and credit cuts by banks and non-bank lenders). We find that adverse selection and moral hazard problems are less severe than commonly believed in syndicated loan sales. When examining the causes of different types of credit cuts, we find credit cuts are less likely to be driven by credit quality problems or information asymmetry but are more likely to be driven by lenders’ funding needs and liquidity shocks to the lenders. In addition, credit sales are partially driven by demand for high-yield performing loans from institutional investors. Finally, the ability of the buyers to pick loans with performing internal ratings suggests that lenders have shared their private information with the buyers during the due diligence process. These findings help explain why credit cuts have no effects on firm default probability after we control for public information.

OGLE-2012-BLG-0455/MOA-2012-BLG-206: MICROLENSING EVENT WITH AMBIGUITY IN PLANETARY INTERPRETATIONS CAUSED BY INCOMPLETE COVERAGE OF PLANETARY SIGNAL

Characterizing a microlensing planet is done from modeling an observed lensing light curve. In this process, it is often confronted that solutions of different lensing parameters result in similar light curves, causing difficulties in uniquely interpreting the lens system, and thus understanding the causes of different types of degeneracy is important. In this work, we show that incomplete coverage of a planetary perturbation can result in degenerate solutions even for events where the planetary signal is detected with a high level of statistical significance. We demonstrate the degeneracy for an actually observed event OGLE-2012-BLG-0455/MOA-2012-BLG-206. The peak of this high-magnification event $(A_{\rm max}\sim400)$ exhibits very strong deviation from a point-lens model with $\Delta\chi^{2}\gtrsim4000$ for data sets with a total number of measurement 6963. From detailed modeling of the light curve, we find that the deviation can be explained by four distinct solutions, i.e., two very different sets of solutions, each with a two-fold degeneracy. While the two-fold (so-called "close/wide") degeneracy is well-understood, the degeneracy between the radically different solutions is not previously known. The model light curves of this degeneracy differ substantially in the parts that were not covered by observation, indicating that the degeneracy is caused by the incomplete coverage of the perturbation. It is expected that the frequency of the degeneracy introduced in this work will be greatly reduced with the improvement of the current lensing survey and follow-up experiments and the advent of new surveys.

STRESS SYMPTOMS, STRESSORS AND COPING STRATEGIES IN FIRST YEAR SOUTH INDIAN MEDICAL STUDENTS

Everyone suffers from one or other form stress. But how does our medical student fare in this aspect when they enter this vast, ever expanding and demanding field of medicine. This is our small step to look from eyes of our student. The aim of this study was to enumerate the stress symptoms experienced, followed by evaluating the causes of stress and coping strategies in south Indian medical students. A cross-sectional study was performed on first year medical students at Melmaruvathur Adhiparasakthi institute of medical sciences, Melmaruvathur, Tamilnadu. A total of 141 students were participating in the study; semi structured questionnaire was designed, and they have to grade them in order of which they experienced first. One-way ANOVA for symptoms of stress, causes and coping strategies and Independent Samples Test- Levene's Test for Equality of Variances was used to find out the difference between hostilities and days scholars. Symptom of Fatigue/weakness is more in boys than the girls <0.018; home sickness was more in girls than boys<0.002, the coping strategies like taking rest, involving in sports and cultural programs; self-isolation was significantly more in boys than girls. Hostilities are having more low moods compare to days scholars <0.025, coping strategy is by listening to music<0.01 . Medical students will be having different types of causes for their stress, so medical faculties need to be aware of these problems and identify and deal with them as soon as possible.

Initiating events, levels of causality, and process hazard analysis

Process hazard analysis (PHA) is used to identify hazard scenarios for a process and determine if the risk from the scenarios is tolerable. Each scenario begins with an initiating event that is made up of one or more causes. These causes must be recorded in sufficient detail to allow the PHA team to determine the particulars of the scenarios and develop any needed risk reduction measures. There is a hierarchy of causality wherein there are immediate, basic, underlying, and root causes of events. A suitable level of causality must be used in PHA. This article describes the hierarchy, recommends the level that should be used in PHA, and provides guidelines for the information that should be recorded in a PHA worksheet for different types of causes. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Process Saf Prog 33: 217–220, 2014

수치해석기법을 이용한 개착식 지반굴착공사의 영향인자 분석

우리나라 지반공학 기술의 발달로 지반굴착 공사가 대규모로 수행되고 있으나, 지반굴착시 공사현장 또는 인접구조물에 직,간접적인 피해를 유발하는 사고는 여전히 빈번히 발생하고 있다. 특히 주거시설이나 상업시설이 밀집해 있는 도심지의 지하터널, 도시철도 역사, 대규모 상업시설, 초고층 빌딩의 기초 공사 등으로 인한 지반굴착관련 사고가 빈번히 발생하고 있어 경제적인 손실 뿐 아니라 인명피해가 발생하여 사회적인 비용이 급속히 증가하고 있는 실정이다. 본 연구에서는 빈번히 발생하는 개착식 흙막이 굴착관련 사고를 방지하기 위하여 최근 발생한 개착식 흙막이 굴착공사로 인한 다수의 사고 및 인접시설물에 영향을 끼친 사례를 수집, 분석을 수행하여 사고발생 원인에 대하여 고찰하고, 수치해석기법을 사용하여 국내 대표적인 지반조건(내륙, 해안특성) 및 공사공법에 따른 굴착시 영향 분석을 수행하였다. 25건의 사고사례를 분석한 결과, 주요 영향요인으로 지반조사의 부실, 가시설 구조체의 불안정 및 지하수의 처리 미흡 등으로 나타났으며, 이 외 여러 요인들이 복합적으로 작용하여 굴착현장에 문제를 발생시키는 것으로 나타났다. 국내의 대표적인 지반조건 및 시공경향을 고려한 22개의 case에 대한 수치해석결과는 일반적인 내륙지역에서는 차수공법에 비해 배수공법에서 침하가 크게 발생하고, 연약지반 및 암반의 불연속면이 발달한 지역에서는 earth anchor 공법 적용시 면밀한 검토가 필요하며, 압밀이 진행 중인 점토지반에서는 과잉간극수압에 대한 고려가 반드시 필요한 것으로 나타났다. In this study, an analysis about the causes of different types of excavation on accidents is required in order to prevent the frequently occurring accidents related to the earth retaining structure and excavation. Also, analysis of influence was performed by using numerical typical soil conditions and construction trend using numerical analysis method. According to the analysis results of 25 accident cases, the main influence factors were found as following: insufficient of soil survey, instability of temporary facility and lack of groundwater treatment, etc. Furthermore, in the numerical analysis result of 22 cases, drainage method was occurred larger settlement than waterproof method in the Inland. In case of applying the earth anchor method, it needs more detailed in the regions, which are discovered soft ground or rock discontinuities. Also, The consolidated clay absolutely needs further consideration of excess hydrostatic pressure.

TOAST classification of isolated pontine infarction

Background Through the analysis of various imaging and angiography data, including computed tomography angiography (CTA), magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) and digital subtraction angiography (DSA), this article aims to understand the relation between pontine infarction and posterior circulation lesions, classify different types of causes of isolated pontine infarction, and compare the clinical characteristics of different classification methods. Methods Eighty-five cases with first-onset isolated pontine infarction were selected. On the basis of imaging examinations, they were divided into the following categories: vertebrobasilar large-artery disease (VLAD); basal artery branch disease (BABD); small artery disease (SAD); type of other reasons and type of uncertain causes. According to Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) classification standard, all patients were divided into the following categories: large artery atherosclerosis (LAA), small artery occlusion (SAO), cardiac embolism (CE), stroke of other determined etiology (SOE), stroke of undetermined etiology (SUE). Results According to imaging classification, BABD was the most common type, accounting for 50.59% (43/85); SAD accounted for 28.23% (24/85); VLAD accounted for 14.12% (12/85); type of uncertain causes accounted for 7.06% (6/85); type of other reasons was not found. Based on the TOAST classification, SAO was the most common type, accounting for 67.06% (57/85); LAA accounted for 30.59% (26/85); SUE accounted for 2.35% (2/85); CE and SOE were not found. Conclusion Based on the TOAST classification, small artery occlusion is the most common etiology of isolated pontine infarction. It is favorable for formulating specific treatment to make TOAST classification based on a variety of imaging data.

The relationship between ‘theory of mind’ and attachment-related anxiety and avoidance in Italian adolescents

This study examined the relationship between ‘theory of mind’ and attachment-related anxiety and avoidance in adolescence. The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test and the “Experiences in Close Relationships – Relationship Structures” questionnaires were administered to 402 14–19 year-old adolescents. Contrary to expectations, anxiety but not avoidance with mother was associated with less accurate mindreading, and this effect was stronger in younger than in older adolescents. Results might be explained in terms of the inconsistency of caregiver behavior that is supposed to cause anxious strategies, and thus illustrate the need to consider not only the effects, but also the causes of different types of insecure strategies.

Instability failure in total shoulder arthroplasty

Glenohumeral instability is the second most common complication of shoulder arthroplasty, occurring in 4.9% of cases. Instability following arthroplasty is best classified based on its direction. The unconstrained shoulder arthroplasty can be unstable superiorly, anteriorly, inferiorly, and posteriorly. The causes and incidences of each direction are unique and individualized. The goal of this paper is to identify the cause of different types of total shoulder arthroplasty instability and discuss techniques to avoid such complications.

Comment re: on the myth of the papyrus Edwin Smith: is it magic or science?

Dear Editor, Dr. Brawanski’s article in Acta Neurochirurgica is a very thoughtful and broad-spectrum reflection on the Edwin Smith Papyrus and its place in a “unified field theory” of the Egyptian world view. Concerning the article, Dr. Meltzer and I have somewhat different perspectives in some regards. The title of this particular article, we submit, may lead the reader to a misconception. Definitely, the ESP is, on one hand, not a myth, and on the other hand, it does contain both science and magic (ritual power) [1]. We surely agree with Brawanski's final analysis here. By definition, myth is an unfounded or false notion, a popular belief or tradition that has grown up around something. Concerning the ESP and science, the author of the ESP seems to have described conditions for which what might be called a proximate cause in the Aristotelian sense is observable, and these conditions are treated with what we would characterize as a pragmatic methodology. Brawanski considers the ESP scientific, not necessarily according to the “modern” concept, but “respecting the specific principles to define natural events and mechanisms.”We agree, the Trauma Treatise of the ESP is scientific in the sense that it conforms with a system of knowledge covering general truths, with recognition and formulation of specific trauma situations and the collection of data through observation and trial and error. Only by not advancing to the stage of formulation and testing of hypotheses does the clinical methodology used in the ESP fail to fulfill our modern concept of the “scientific method.” We can consider the ESP as a “snapshot” in the transitional stage of development of what would become modern medicine. Concerning the ESP and magic, the existing ESP (ca. 1650-1550 B.C.) is an unfinished copy, probably being made for didactic purposes, or, perhaps, for a physician’s use. The ESP has two sections, Recto and Verso. The Recto is the Trauma Treatise. Suffice it to say that, in our opinion, some of the observations and treatments of the ESP are part of an overall world in which what we call supernatural beings and causes operated. Yet, there is clearly a prevailing distinction among the responses to conditions for which different types of causes are perceived.

Mutation of the parkinsonism gene ATP13A2 causes neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) comprise a heterogeneous group of metabolic storage diseases that present with the accumulation of autofluorescent lipopigment, neurodegeneration and premature death. Nine genes have been thus far identified as the cause of different types of NCL, with ages at onset ranging from around birth to adult, although the underlying etiology of the disease still remains elusive. We present a family with typical NCL pathology in which we performed exome sequencing and identified a single homozygous mutation in ATP13A2 that fully segregates with disease within the family. Mutations in ATP13A2 are a known cause of Kufor–Rakeb syndrome (KRS), a rare parkinsonian phenotype with juvenile onset. These data show that NCL and KRS may share etiological features and implicate the lysosomal pathway in Parkinson's disease.

The influence of the parameters of lost foam process on the quality of aluminum alloys castings

This paper presents the research results of application of Lost foam process for aluminum alloys castings of a simple geometry. The process characteristic is that patterns and gating of moulds, made of polymers, stay in the mould till the liquid metal inflow. In contact with the liquid metal, pattern intensely and in relatively short time decomposes and evaporates, which is accompanied by casting crystallization. As a consequence of polymer pattern decomposition and evaporation a great quantity of liquid and gaseous products are produced, which is often the cause of different types of casting errors. This paper presents the results of a research with a special consideration given to detecting and analyzing the errors of castings. In most cases the cause of these errors are defects of polymer materials used for evaporable patterns production, as well as defects of materials for refractory coatings production for polymer patterns. The researches have shown that different types of coatings determine properties of the obtained castings. Also, the critical processing parameters (polymer pattern density, casting temperature, permeability of refractory coating and sand, construction of patterns and gating of moulds) significantly affect on castings quality. During the research a special consideration was given to control and optimization of these parameters with the goal of achieving applicable castings properties. The study of surface and internal error of castings was performed systematically in order to carry out preventive measures to avoid errors and minimize production costs. In order to achieve qualitative and profitable castings production by the method of Lost foam it is necessary to reach the balance in the system: evaporable polymer pattern - liquid metal - refractory coating - sandy cast in the phase of metal inflow, decomposition and evaporation of polymer pattern, formation and solidification of castings. By optimizing the processing parameters castings of required structural and mechanical characteristics could be achieved, casting defects characteristic for this process could be avoided with the result of the production costs saving. The presented results can be useful to define parameters of Lost foam process and its application in practice with objective to obtain castings with in advance specified quality.

Cancer Risk and GSTM1 and GSTT1 Polymorphisms: Hansteen et al. Respond

We thank Cetta et al. for the interesting comments regarding our article (Rossi et al. 2009). In their letter they address two main issues. The first refers to the role of genetic polymorphisms in the causal relationships between exposure to carcinogens and cancer occurrence. The second is more conceptual and criticizes the evolution of association studies, claiming a decreased attention to pathogenetic mechanisms in favor of an indiscriminate increase of the study size, with a consequent lack of biological plausibility. We agree that these are important issues. We have addressed the problem of inherited predisposition for DNA damage from a different angle, namely using the frequency of chromosomal aberration (CA) as a response indicator for occupational and environmental exposure to genotoxic agents. An increase in CA level in exposed individuals compared with controls has been documented since the 1990s (Nordic Study Group 1990). The conceptual basis for using this assay has been the hypothesis that the extent of genetic damage in peripheral lymphocytes reflects critical events for the carcinogenic process in target tissues. The key issue—whether the association with cancer risk is attributable to exposure to carcinogenic agents or reflects inherited susceptibility and accumulated damages—was addressed with a nested case–control study on incident and deceased cancer cases in the Nordic and Italian cohorts (Bonassi et al. 2000). The main findings of that study indicated an increase in cancer risk for subjects with high CA levels compared with those with low levels. This increase was independent of exposure history, as further verified in follow-up studies (Bonassi et al. 2008; Hagmar et al. 2004). In all these studies, cancer has been studied as one entity. This summarization was mostly due to statistical needs, although the very early occurrence of chromosome damage in the carcinogenic pathway of most solid cancers provided a valuable rationale (Mitelman et al. 2004). A further reason for summarizing data by cancer type was that damages were measured in surrogate tissues and not in the target, providing only an indirect measure of cancer-related events. However, studying the cancer site in relation to CA frequency was a major interest of our group, because different types of cancers have different pathogenetic models. In our recent article (Rossi et al. 2009), we grouped cancer types into three groups, and we showed for all of these groups that subjects with high levels of CAs are more susceptible to developing cancer than are subjects with low or medium levels of CAs; this indicates that CA is an inherited susceptibility marker for cancer regardless of cancer type. The beginning of Cetta et al.’s letter is misleading. The statement from our article (Rossi et al. 2009) that “GSTM1 [gluta-thione S-transferase M1] and GSTT1 [gluta-thione S-transferase theta 1]polymorphisms [as all individual polymorphisms] . . . are not expected to have a dramatic influence on baseline CA [chromosomal aberration] or overall cancer risk” is not a conclusion of the study, but describes the conclusions of the extensive literature supporting this evidence (Hirschhorn 2009). We agree that it is important to examine the cause of different types of cancer and the role(s) of the different modifying enzymes, including GSTM1 and GSTT1. However, the present study was designed to evaluate a possible modifying effect of GSTM1 and GSTT1 on the cancer predictivity of CA (indicating individual susceptibility to developing cancer). Our main concern was identify individuals more susceptible to damage from known genotoxic exposure. Because only GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms have been extensively evaluated in human surveillance studies, we tested only these genotypes. Within the consortium of studies included in this project (Bonassi et al. 2008), further follow-up studies to differentiate cancer types or include other genotypes are possible, providing adequate financial support. The issue raised by Cetta et al. of decreased attention to pathogenetic mechanisms in favor of larger studies, with a consequent lack of biological plausibility, is only partially correct. Actually, in association studies that link a genetic polymorphism to the effect of exposure or to the risk of cancer, the lack of specificity is the main reason for failure. Another reason for their failure is small study size, which generates meaningless and often contrasting results. The conflict noted by Cetta et al. is apparent because, as demonstrated by the success of genome-wide association studies, the need of reaching a proper statistical power is as important as studying a genetic polymorphism in a specific pathway.

The Logic of Historical Explanation in the Social Sciences

Historical explanations seek to identify the causes of outcomes in particular cases. Although social scientists commonly develop historical explanations, they lack criteria for distinguishing different types of causes and for evaluating the relative importance of alternative causes of the same outcome. This article first provides an inventory of the five types of causes that are normally used in historical explanations: (1) necessary but not sufficient, (2) sufficient but not necessary, (3) necessary and sufficient, (4) INUS, and (5) SUIN causes. It then introduces a new method—sequence elaboration—for evaluating the relative importance of causes. Sequence elaboration assesses the importance of causes through consideration of their position within a sequence and through consideration of the types of causes that make up the sequence as a whole. Throughout the article, methodological points are illustrated with substantive examples from the field of international and comparative studies.

The Future of Depression Psychopharmacology

Along with the development of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors there has been a tremendous widening of the definition of depression and an impressive decrease in the placebo-drug difference in controlled studies. In the early 1960s, about one third of depressed patients improved with placebo and two thirds with active compounds. Current controlled studies suggest that the situation has certainly not improved. The Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression Study found that response rates to new compounds after the failure of the first antidepressant are low. The monoamine hypothesis of depression was formulated in the mid 1960s based on the antidepressant efficacy of the monoamine reuptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and the depressogenic effects of reserpine as a monoamine depleter. However, no monoamine-related finding has been found that is diagnostic for depression. A second major hypothesis regarding depression has been the stress cortisol hypothesis. However, blood cortisol levels are not diagnostic of depression. Psychiatric clinicians are convinced that there are patients for whom antidepressants have made the difference between life and death. However, physicians may generalize unjustifiably based on single dramatic cases to a much larger diagnostic group. Perhaps there are many causes of different types of human sadness, and perhaps only some of these involve mechanisms related to monoamines. Thus, perhaps only some kinds of depression are responsive to monoamine affecting antidepressants..

Top-down causation by information control: from a philosophical problem to a scientific research programme

It has been claimed that different types of causes must be considered in biological systems, including top-down as well as same-level and bottom-up causation, thus enabling the top levels to be causally efficacious in their own right. To clarify this issue, the important distinctions between information and signs are introduced here and the concepts of information control and functional equivalence classes in those systems are rigorously defined and used to characterize when top-down causation by feedback control happens, in a way that is testable. The causally significant elements we consider are equivalence classes of lower level processes, realized in biological systems through different operations having the same outcome within the context of information control and networks.

Natural Motion in Inanimate Bodies

The Thomist 71 (2007): 555-76 NATURAL MOTION IN INANIMATE BODIES THOMAS LARSON Saint Anselm College Manchester, New Hampshire I. INTRODUCTION: A STRONG TREND IN MODERN ARISTOTELIAN SCHOLARSHIP WHAT DOES ARISTOTLE MEAN when he says in the second book of the Physics that nature is a principle of motion belonging to a body essentially? Among modern scholars of Aristotle there exists a good deal of disagreement on this point. One trend is to understand the internal source of motion as a kind of efficient cause. Daniel Graham is one scholar who clearly articulates this position. For example, Graham claims that, according to the second book of the Physics, "[w]hile forced motions are brought about by external agents, natural motions are brought about by the agency of the thing itself."1 According to Graham, "[a]s an inherent source of change and rest, a nature is already an efficient cause."2 Graham claims that the teaching of the second book of the Physics is that nature is a principle, belonging essentially to a body, that "originates" the motion of the body,3 and he thinks that only self-motion qualifies as natural motion. T. H. Irwin also takes "origin" (his translation of "arche") of motion as an efficient cause that initiates a change. He notes, for 1 Aristotle's Physics: Book VIII, trans. with commentary by Daniel Graham (Oxford: Clarendon Press: 1999), xiii. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid., xv. 555 556 THOMAS LARSON example, the difficulty that Aristotle (in Physics 2.1) seems to imply two things: on the one hand, he seems to imply that form and matter are efficient causes, "since they are origins of change"; on the other hand, he makes a clear distinction between formal and material causes, and this would imply that form and matter are not efficient causes.4 According to Irwin, since matter and form are principles of change, they must be taken as efficient causes of motion. According to John M. Rist, book 2 of the Physics presents nature as a principle of life and self-motion. Rist notes that in book 8 (255a5ff.), Aristotle says that though elements and inanimate bodies are natural, they are not self-movers, "[b]ut in Physics 2, the elements are included with living things without comment, as containing the principle of motion within themselves and intrinsically."5 The two passages are the source of the following issue: although in Physics 2 the study of nature deals with those subjects which contain the principle of motion and rest within themselves intrinsically, Aristotle does not identify a class of self-movers (animals and men) within 'nature' and treat them separately from plants and the four elements. Yet, according to Physics 8, these last groups, though natural and containing the principle of motion and rest within themselves, are not self-movers. Once Aristotle has made this distinction, of course, he should tell us in what other sense plants and animals "contain the principle ofmotion and rest within themselves intrinsically."6 4 T.H. Irwin, Aristotle's First Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 9 (emphasis added). Irwin goes on to argue for interpreting matter, form, and final causes as abbreviated accounts of efficient causality: "The appearance of four causes instead of one seems to result from incomplete specifications of the causes and effects. If nothing more can be said for Aristotle's doctrine of four causes, then it does not describe four objectively different causes, but only four ways to describe the cause; and three of these ways are mere abbreviations of the fourth cause." According to Irwin, Aristotle cannot defend the claim that "the formal and material causes are different types of causes from the efficient cause", but "he can still reasonably argue that they are different types of efficient causes, differing from each other, though not from all types of efficient cause" (ibid., 96). 5 John M. Rist, The Mind ofAristotle: A Study in Philosophic Growth (Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, 1989), 123. 6 Ibid., 124 (emphasis added). NATURAL MOTION IN INANIMATE BODIES 557 Note that in this passage Rist takes it as obvious that in book 2 of the Physics nature is an intrinsic efficient...

Mechanical morphogenesis: A concept applied to the surface of the radius

The purpose of this study is to perform a detailed morphological analysis of the changes that occur at the attachment sites of muscles, tendons, and ligaments on the radius. We consider the osteological, anatomical, and pathological aspects in detail, devising a visual standard for ranking the development of osseous expression at each attachment. We also discuss the etiology, particularly through focus on the relationship with the activity and age variables. In a sample of 148 radii from archeological and contemporary samples, 11 osteological sites were analyzed in each specimen. The osteological sites included nine muscular attachments, the attachment of the interosseous membrane, and the groove of the extensor pollicis longus tendon. The results show that mechanical loading is the main cause of different types of markings appearing and developing on the bone surface. Furthermore, there is a relationship between the osteological appearance of enthesis and its morphological type. It is possible to grade osteological appearance with a visual reference method that establishes an identifiable threshold for each grade and eliminates relying completely on observer experience. This methodology is applicable to the field of physical anthropology and to its forensic subfield, identifying individuals by attributing to them specific work or given activities through the use of skeletal remains.