Causes Of Corruption Research Articles

OVERCOMING CORRUPTION AS THE BASIS OF EFFECTIVE PUBLIC GOVERNANCE AND SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY

The purpose of the paper is to substantiate the means of overcoming corruption in order to ensure effective state governance and sustainable economic development of the country. Methodology. The research is based on a systematic approach to studying aspects of overcoming corruption as a basis for effective public administration and sustainable economic development of the country. The following methods are used: the method of induction (while determining the impact of corruption on society); the method of analysis (while determining the means for effective fight against corruption); synthesis (while generalizing the main causes of corruption in Ukraine), the method of hypotheses (while determining ways to support effective public administration in Ukraine). Results. The destructive effects of corruption are considered at two levels: at the state level (national level) and at the level of citizen (personal level). The state is formed by people, and their tolerance to corruption depends on their value systems and a vital position formed by society and family. The one can fight against corruption effectively, first of all, by forming the competence of “responsibility” in the citizens of the country, that is, their conscious attitude to the requirements of society, the ability to be responsible for their own lives and actions. Anti-corruption tools are investigated at the state level and at the level of personality formation. Effective governance under the influence of corruption pressure not only prevents the country from developing in a normal way, inhibiting foreign investment and reducing national wealth, but also activating the migration outflow of a responsible part of the population, the best part of the national gene pool, thereby destroying the nation. The fight against corruption at the state level should begin with the fight against corruption at the level of education of the individual, first of all, by forming the competence of the “responsibility” in the citizens of the country, that is, their conscious attitude to the requirements of society, the ability to be responsible for their own lives and actions. Practical implications. Using global experience in the fight against corruption, the following strategic measures are proposed: government data and information on tax revenues, as well as on funds from international organizations should be freely used by citizens (Ukrainian ministries’ websites contains no transparent and detailed data); create an active forum for government officials, civil society, private sector leaders, and other members of “Anticorruption Initiatives”, which will provide an opportunity to fight against corruption and protect interests of the population in many areas, including the most risky, such as medical procurement; publish all data on public expenditure on the Open Government Portal – the data warehouse of world-wide budgets created by the World Bank Group; to create information and technological infrastructure that will allow the widespread use of electronic services (from the payment of taxes through the Internet to filling out the prescriptions of doctors); provide the opportunity to send instant text messages from citizens’ mobile phones to a specified address in order to provide feedback, submitting suggestions, or reporting a problem related to public services. Value/originality. The means of overcoming corruption are substantiated in order to ensure effective public administration and sustainable economic development of the country.

КОРУПЦІЯ ЯК НЕГАТИВНЕ СОЦІАЛЬНЕ ЯВИЩЕ У СУЧАСНОМУ ГЛОБАЛІЗОВАНОМУ СУСПІЛЬСТВІ

The article examines corruption as a negative social phenomenon in today's globalized society. The essence of the concepts of corruption and administrative corruption and the characteristic features of corruption are analyzed. The main causes of corruption in Ukraine have been identified. It is established that corruption is a negative social phenomenon in today's globalized society. It is determined that corruption is a phenomenon that is constantly evolving, transforming, adapting to the conditions of development of legislation, society, state, while its essence and negative impact remain unchanged. Corruption in a particular society can be overcome only by effectively combining several key factors and methods of combating it and implementing the relevant legislation, where regulations do not contradict each other. The following problems in the sector of architecture and urban planning of Ukraine, as the lack of publicity of information in the field of urban planning and land use; defective system of state control and regulation in construction; inefficiency of available control tools and insufficient transparency of road construction, repair and use processes; lack of public information about cultural heritage sites, inconsistencies in urban planning and monument protection legislation. It is established that in order to ensure favorable economic development of the state, it is necessary to improve the legal and organizational base for overcoming corruption in the sector of architecture and urban planning of Ukraine. A promising area of further research on this issue is to assess the effectiveness of the legislative process in the field of anticorruption is to ensure transparent public administration, representing both scientific and applied value and strategy development, public authorities with individuals and legal entities.

INFLUENCE OF CORRUPTION ON THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF UKRAINE IN TERMS OF REFORMATION: A RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS

The subject of the study is to investigate the causes of the influence of corruption on the economic development of Ukraine in the context of reform. Corruption occurs at all levels of society and in some way interferes in all elements of society, and thus negatively affects democracy and economic development of the country. The research methodology involves a retrospective analysis of the problem of inveteracy of corruption associated with the study of its impact on the economy. It is precisely endemic corruption that threatens the formation of Ukraine’s stability and its transition to a market economy. Corruption as one of the most ancient phenomena in society exists in every modern country. The general understanding of corruption is that corruption is detrimental to economic growth. There are also many causes of corruption, namely, a cultural factor, a psychological factor and, therefore, factors associated with the system can cause corruption in every society. The methodological basis for the research was the works of Tylchyk O.V., Bilous V.T., Subbot A.I., Lytvynenko V.I., Hvozdetskyi V.D., Popovych V.M., Bodnarchuk O.H. in the field of administrative law and issues of counteracting and combating corruption, which indicate that there are some factors, such as monopoly power, discretionary power, and low civil servants’ liability, that may provide opportunities for the development of corruption. The purpose of the article was to analyse the causes of the impact of corruption on the country’s economic and political development. Today, corruption has a wide range of activities that undermine the country’s development. Researchers argue that corruption affects the country’s economic growth. However, contradictory evidence was found that corruption can have a positive effect on the country’s economic development or have no significant impact on economic performance. On the basis of analysis of these works, it was established that corruption is the result of institutional weakness, with a potential adverse effect on the country’s economic efficiency. Corruption negatively affects the efficiency of public spending, reduces budget revenues and increases its deficit, impedes foreign direct investment, reduces the effectiveness of international assistance, and hinders economic development. As a result of the analysis, ways to reduce corruption are identified, which suggest a policy of reducing corruption in Ukraine. The result of the study was conclusions on the need to develop and form a coherent system of scientific and legal views on identifying effective anticorruption measures, optimizing and improving the effectiveness of anticorruption activities, with the involvement of international experience in coordinating and minimizing information leakage and engaging civic initiatives among the non-public sector.

Causal Factors of Corruption in Construction Project Management: An Overview.

The development of efficient and strategic anti-corruption measures can be better achieved if a deeper understanding and identification of the causes of corruption are established. Over the past years, many studies have been devoted to the research of corruption in construction management (CM). This has resulted in a significant increase in the body of knowledge on the subject matter, including the causative factors triggering these corrupt practices. However, an apropos systematic assessment of both past and current studies on the subject matter which is needful for the future endeavor is lacking. Moreover, there is an absence of unified view of the causative factors of corruption identified in construction project management (CPM). This paper, therefore, presents a comprehensive review of the causes of corruption from selected articles in recognized construction management journals to address the mentioned gaps. A total number of 44 causes of corruption were identified from 37 publications and analyzed in terms of existing causal factors of corruption, annual trend of publications and the thematic categorization of the identified variables. The most identifiable causes were over close relationships, poor professional ethical standards, negative industrial and working conditions, negative role models and inadequate sanctions. A conceptual framework of causes of corruption was established, after categorizing the 44 variables into five unique categories. In descending order, the five constructs are Psychosocial-Specific Causes, Organizational-Specific Causes, Regulatory-Specific Causes, Project-Specific Causes and Statutory-Specific Causes. This study extends the current literature of corruption research in construction management and contributes to a deepened understanding of the causal instigators of corruption identified in CPM. The findings from this study provide valuable information and extended knowledge to industry practitioners and policymakers as well as anti-corruption agencies in the formulation and direction of anti-corruption measures. To corruption researchers in CM, this study is vital for further research.

Integrity: The Key Stone to Good Tax Administration

This paper argues that corruption has a corrosive impact on the well-being of a nation, and is especially damaging to tax administrations. The paper compares descriptively the contrasting fortunes of countries that are perceived to be afflicted by substantially different levels of corruption, with particular reference to South Africa and Australia. This is done to support efforts in South Africa to reduce perceived levels of corruption. The paper explores the causes of corruption both from the perspective of the design of tax systems and from the perspective of tax administrations. It outlines a range of generic remedies that can be used to minimize the risk of corruption. In giving life to these generic remedies the paper follows the approach taken by the Australian Taxation Office to reinvigorate its integrity framework as a result of the improper conduct of an assistant commissioner (Petroulias) in the late 1990s.

The Role of Specialized Civil Society in Challenge Corruption with Glance to I.R.I

Combating against corruption is one of the most important factors for establishing Good Governance. Corruption is a social, political and economic phenomenon that defect the democratic institutions and stop establishing good governance. This study using analytical – descriptive, analyses the role of civil society in combat corruption with glance to I.R.IFindings of this study show that the role of special civil societies has remarkable efficiency and effectiveness in combat corruption. In challenging corruption different actor such as government, private sector and specialized civil society have function, but the role of civil societies is more effective than others.In relating to the I.R.I actions against corruption, the country enacted different laws such as the law of access to information, the Law of United Nations Convention against Corruption and this process will send a clear message that the country is determined to prevent and control corruption. In pathology of corruption in I.R of Iran the concentration on fighting against corruption, is concentrated on "The Staff of Combat against Economic Corruption" and civil society don’t have effective or remarkable role to fight against this abnormality and this Staff is most important centers to harmonize the actions against corruption. Finally, the most important causes of corruption in every developing Nations in Transit such as Iran are big government and interference of Government in economy, the weakly embedded rule of law, the ineffective and inefficient of government policy, lack of accountability and institutional transparency.

Singapore’s success in combating corruption: lessons for policy makers

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explain Singapore’s success in combating corruption and to identify the lessons for policy makers concerned with enhancing the anti-corruption measures in their countries.Design/methodology/approachThe paper provides a brief literature review and analysis of Singapore’s policy context before explaining Singapore’s success in combating corruption and identifying the lessons for policy makers to enhance the effectiveness of the anti-corruption measures in their countries.FindingsSingapore’s success in combating corruption can be attributed to the political will of the People’s Action Party government and the effectiveness of the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau in investigating all corruption cases and enforcing the anti-corruption laws impartially, without fear or favour. Extrapolating from Singapore’s success, policy makers in other countries can learn these lessons: the critical importance of political will; addressing the causes of corruption and learning from past mistakes; establishing and supporting an independent anti-corruption agency with adequate resources; enforcing the anti-corruption laws impartially but not selectively against the government’s political opponents; and combating corruption is a marathon requiring perseverance and sustained effort.Originality/valueScholars, policy makers and anti-corruption practitioners will be interested in learning how Singapore has succeeded in combating corruption as well as the relevant lessons for policy makers.

KORUPCIJOS PRIEŽASTYS IR JŲ VALDYMO PRIEMONĖS LIETUVOS SVEIKATOS PRIEŽIŪROS SISTEMOJE

Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti korupcijos priežastis ir numatyti jų valdymo priemones Lietuvos sveikatos priežiūros sistemoje. Tyrimo metodika: remiantis 2016 m. Vilmorus apklausos rezultatais, atlikta lyginamoji analizė, taikant aprašomosios statistikos, lyginamosios analizės metodus. Apie 50 proc. gyventojų ir valstybės tarnautojų ligonines laiko labiausiai korumpuotomis. Kyšininkavimo priežastys – ilgai trunkantis biurokratinis procesas, nekokybiškos paslaugas, sudėtingos biurokratinės procedūros; noras gauti nepriklausančias paslaugas. Siekiant valdyti korupciją reikalingos sistemin-gos teisinės, ekonominės, vadybinės, socialinės priemonės, kurios sumažintų biurokratinę naštą, pa-gerintų paslaugų kokybę, užtikrintų aiškų teisinį reglamentavimą ir viešumą.

Red tape, bribery and government favouritism: evidence from Europe

Red tape has long been identified as a major cause of corruption, hence deregulation was advocated as an effective anticorruption tool, an advice which many country followed. However, we lack robust systematic evidence on whether deregulation actually lowers corruption. This is partially due to the difficulty of defining what is good regulation, but also to the lack of theoretical clarity about which type of corruption regulations impact on and to the deficient measurement of different types of corruption. In order to address the latter two gaps, we differentiate petty corruption from government favouritism and propose novel measurement of the latter by developing two objective proxy measures of favouritism in public procurement: single bidding in competitive markets and a composite score of tendering ‘red flags’. Using publicly available official electronic records of over 2.5 million government contracts in 27 EU member states and two European Economic Area countries in 2009–2014, we directly operationalize a common definition of favouritism: unjustified restriction of access to public contracts to favour a certain bidder. Petty corruption is measured using business surveys while the extent of business regulation is measured by Doing Business expert assessment of precise regulatory costs. Using country-level panel regression analysis, we find that deregulation has a heterogeneous impact on both low and high level corruption. It is largely ineffective in tackling government favouritism, with business start-up deregulation even facilitating such corruption. Whereas deregulating the various channels through which governments and businesses interact (e.g. obtaining construction permits) often decreases the perception of bribery and petty corruption. Policy consequences are profound and point at a more targeted and context-dependent promotion of the deregulation agenda. Full public procurement database is available at http://digiwhist.eu/resources/data/.

Political Causes of Corruption in Iraq

Corruption has political, economic, social, and cultural reasons, but political reason remains the point of spreading corruption. This article examines the political causes of corruption in Iraq after the changing of Saddam's regime by American occupation. The corruption that has now become endemic has served not only to undermine reform and reconstruction efforts while simultaneously accomplishing the embezzlement of billions of dollars that left the Iraqi people exposed to a wide array of harms on all sectors of the country's political, economic and social. The qualitative technique through interview and observation was duly adopted as the methods for data collection, whereby manual analysis was employed to present the result obtained from the field. The data collected by interviews with two groups (Iraqi members of the parliament and academicians in political science discipline) that focused on detecting the political causes of corruption in Iraq. The study revealed many political causes of corruption in Iraq after 2003. Also, indicate that corruption is both a recurrent experience and a major concern in the daily life of the citizens of Iraq. Corruption has played a significant role in the devastation of Iraqi society and citizens' lives. It renders true democracy impossible. It fosters government impunity, uses threats and violence, violations of human rights. The paper recommends to the application of laws and compliance with the contents of the Iraqi constitution and the adoption of the principle of separation of powers, that good governance, and democratic principle should put in place to address the menace of corruption and maladministration in Iraq.

Combined Effect of Economic Variables on Fraud, a Survey of Developing Countries

IntroductionIt has been established that the impact of fraud is detrimental to all societies, which also explains poor economic performance especially in the context of developing economies. The current business environments have experienced an upsurge in fraud and many academic researchers and business participants have investigated the factors involved in fraud and corruption. Also, the scope of fraud and its consequences and magnitude have been discussed in the literature. It is generally agreed by researchers of fraud that cost of fraud is unknown. This is because the nature of fraud is hidden so the cost of fraud is also hidden and incalculable. In addition, fraud causes intangible damage such as reputational and social damage to the organization and these costs are not easy to estimate. Many researchers believe that pervasiveness of fraud has to be considered as one of the important factors that contributes to economic growth, the effectiveness of public management, strategic decision making for investment, and forming international relationships. The Oxford English Dictionary (2009) defines fraud as - wrongful or criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain. In academic literature fraud is defined as leading to personal enrichment by circumventing the prevention measures without necessarily being prosecuted by judiciary systems (Phua, 2005). Public sector fraud is pervasive and fraud is present in all the mechanism of development in different forms, magnitude and consequences. Public sector fraud is broadly defined as abusing an organizational system for personal gains. In this work, we study the effect of economic variables on fraud. Economic variables reflect the economic status of the country and public as a whole. The data set used in this research were obtained from 60 developing countries in the time period of 1995 to 2014. In this research, we used the world bank definition of developing and developed countries. We found that there is a service sector - fraud positive association and an industrial sector - fraud negative association in the context of developing counties subjected to our study.Value added reflects the contribution of labor and capital to production. In this study, we used value added in industry and service sector. Value added by activity breaks down the total value added by sector, namely industry, and service activities in this paper. The shares of each sector are calculated by dividing the value added in each sector by total value added.Our aim in this paper is to examine the combined effect of economic variables on fraud. To accomplish this, we used 7 variables namely; fraud, the size of government, democracy, per capita income, inflation, the total value added of the industrial sector divided by GDP, and the total value added of the service sector divided by GDP.We use panel model throughout our study. Panel data combine a time series dimension with a cross section dimension. We also applied co-integrated test to give an explanation for the long run association between the variables. In addressing the inquiry of what the causes of corruption are, with few exceptions, majority of the empirical studies have examined various cross-sectional comparative, but country case studies and/or by regional analysis has not been emphasized enough. Recent studies, notably by Sandholtz and Koetzle (2000), Treisman (2000), Fisman and Gatti (2002), and Pellegrini and Gerlagh (2008), considered several aspects of the causes of corruption across countries. With the complexity of corruption issues and use of different empirical methodologies, studies have separately or with combination of factors analyzed the economic, political, historical and cultural traditions of the causes of corruption. But the findings show some lack or inconclusive results on the relationship between corruption and some variables such as the size of government and democracy as non-economic variables. …

ALGUNOS DETERMINANTES ECONÓMICOS Y POLÍTICOS DE LA CORRUPCIÓN A NIVEL MUNDIAL

Este ensayo se enfoca en el estudio de las causas de la corrupción mediante un modelo teórico propuesto por Alberto Ades y Rafael Di Tella (1999). De este modelo se derivaron tres hipótesis: a) las ganancias naturales (principalmente derivadas del petróleo) incentivan la corrupción; b) los aumentos en los salarios de los burócratas disminuyen la corrupción; y c) el grado en el que una sociedad es capaz de monitorear a sus funcionarios públicos reduce el nivel de corrupción. Por cuestiones de endogeneidad, las estimaciones se realizaron por Mínimos Cuadrados en Dos Etapas (MC2E). Los resultados mostraron que, dejando como única variable que midiera el grado de monitoreo de la sociedad al PIB per capita, la totalidad de los parámetros son muy significativos. Con este modelo el empleo de la variable de exportaciones de petróleo confirma la hipótesis de que las ganancias naturales incentivan la corrupción, pero los salarios de los burócratas no tienen los signos esperados, es decir que, mayores salarios de los burócratas no reducen la corrupción en la muestra a nivel mundial. En lo que respecta al papel de las exportaciones de petróleo, su efecto sólo resultó significativo en el grupo de países de ingreso medio, observándose que tales exportaciones incrementan la corrupción de este grupo de países.

IDENTIFY MAIN FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CORRUPTION AND SUGGEST HOW TO ERADICATE THE CORRUPTION PROBLEM IN INDONESIA

Ccorruption is an extra ordinary crime which has complex problem. There are many causes of corruption; and ccorruption has negative impact to many sectors, which is causing huge losses to the state and society. During the last decade, since the Corruption Eradication Commission (CEC) of the Republic of Indonesia has been established, the eradication of corruption cases has been done massively. However, the amount of corruption cases which have been handled by law enforcement agencies tend to increase by year to year. This paper will identify what factors are causing corruption and provide the ideas how to eradicate the corruption in Indonesia. There are at least five factors that cause corruption in Indonesia. The first one is politic factor. Secondly, is ineffective of system. The third is incentive or financial pressure factor. The fourth is due to the weak of law enforcement. The last of corruption causes is lack of integrity. This paper also provides the problem solving of corruption which is a latent endemic problem in Indonesia based on law number 30 of 2002 and identify the main causes of corruption. By identifying the root causes of corruption, hopefully it can be expected for eradicating corruption effectively and efficiently.

Ufisadii (Corruption) and Development: An Economic Framework for the Analysis of Corruption

Given a growing recognition by both the general public and international development agencies that a fundamental requirement for economic and social development is a corruption free governance, this article analyzes the macroeconomics of corruption within the context of Cost-Benefit analysis; the model from which the causes, consequences, scope and possible corrective actions of corruption can be developed. It then presents some flashbacks on the family of scandals of corruption in some East Africa countries. This study is purely a deskwork (with no empirical estimation) that is supplemented by readings as well as individual observations from vast working experiences. The study found that bad economics, bad politics and institutional failure on the enforcement of laws, and actual punishment for the individuals involved in corruption are the major cause of corruption. It then observed that the East Africa governments may be achieving at least modest success via their current efforts; public perceptions of their efforts to combat the problem are improving, the public is giving governments better marks for their handling of the problem now than in the past, and if the top leaders can maintain their commitment to this battle, and pass it over to other potential leaders, then their countries can be free from potential ‘time bombs’ and may hope to see further improvements in future in all walks of peoples’ life.

Causas y permanencia de la corrupción, el rol de la confianza y los dilemas sociales: el caso de Ecuador

The present study aims to discuss corruption, its causes, and its persistence using the research agenda proposed by Bo Rothstein. As a rule, studies and theories have analysed corruption using structural variables like the economy, social development, and democracy, among others. Nevertheless, little has been explained about the role of other—non-structural—variables in generating and sustaining corruption, such as interpersonal/institutional trust and social dilemmas. Therefore, this study will use data obtained from the Vanderbilt University project Americas Barometer in 2014 to analyse the case of Ecuador. The objective of this paper is twofold: first, to contrast the claims of major theories of structural causes of corruption with what is observed in Ecuador, and second, to use Rothstein’s framework to assess the links between trust, social dilemmas, and corruption in the selected case study. From this analysis, we can assert that the hypotheses constructed by Rothstein are confirmed in the case of Ecuador. On the one hand, there seems to be a positive correlation between vertical and horizontal trust in the country. On the other hand, looking at the fitted models, it is also possible to claim that there is a negative association between interpersonal trust and the perception and persistence of corruption in Ecuador.

Causes of corruption: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa

This study explores the causes of corruption in 22 countries in sub-Saharan Africa from 1996 to 2013. The sources of corruption are grouped into three main thematic areas – historical roots, contemporary causes and institutional causes to make way for subjective and objective measures. The subjective measures allow for assessment of the effectiveness of anticorruption policies. Using pooled OLS, fixed-effect and instrumental-variable approaches, and focusing on the perceived level of corruption as the dependent variable, we find that ethnic diversity, resource abundance and educational attainment are markedly less associated with corruption. In contrast, wage levels of bureaucrats and anticorruption measures based on government effectiveness and regulatory quality breed substantial corruption. Press freedom is found to be variedly associated with corruption. On the basis of these findings, we recommend that the fight against corruption on the continent needs to be reinvented through qualitative and assertive institutional reforms. Anticorruption policy decisions should focus on existing educational systems as a conduit for intensifying awareness of the devastating effect of corruption on sustainable national development.

Interdependency of Aid Effectiveness and Good Governance

The spirit of this article is to offer a fresh perspective related to the future of aid as a way of informing the ongoing discourse on development assistance to the benefit of policy makers and key stakeholders. It suggests that aid deployment ought to change in such a way as to improve governance and has shown where and how. We explore governance’s focus as well as the World Bank dimensions. Under focus, we concentrate on the transparency of government, the simplicity of procedures, accountability and responsibility, the need to fight against corruption, individual freedom and collective expression, and independence of the legal system. For the World Bank dimensions, the concentration is on: voice and accountability, political stability and the absence of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law, and control of corruption. With respect to regulation and corruption, we address whether to use market-based or regulatory measures, possible policy instruments, implementation issues, and difficulties and problems. Under possible policy instruments, mandatory policy instruments, voluntary agreements, compliance instruments, and precautionary measures are explored. Implementation issues include introductory matters, costs, free riding and voluntary agreement and compliance. In addition, we examine difficulties associated with distributional issues, compensation, regulatory capture phenomenon, and the effect on innovation. Regarding corruption, we examine its definition, state capture versus conventional corruption, corrupt acts, forms of corruption, hypothetical causes of corruption, some analytical points, theoretical consequences, unbinding bribery, incidence of corruption, fraud, and control measures.

Organized Crime in Russia

The breakup of the Soviet Union in the 1990s opened the gates of immigration to Israel and to the West. The wave of immigration to Israel also included criminal elements who wanted to evade the rule of law in their countries. The arrival of these people to Israel aroused my interest in the historical causes of corruption in Russia, forms of corrupt behaviour by state employees, and the processes of development and creation of criminal organizations in Russia.

Combating Systemic Corruption in Africa: Altitudinal, Attitudinal, Confrontational or Constitutional?

~ ~ ~ The fact and reality of systemic corruption in Africa is irrefutable. It is therefore not surprising that the subject has attracted quite a great deal of attention from the academia. Thus, to assert that corruption is the greatest impediment to the socio-political and economic development of Africa is a superfluous understatement and a mere reinstatement of the obvious. Across Africa, incredibly huge sums of money sufficient to conduct free, fair and credible elections, equip the military and the police for optimum performance, revolutionize agriculture, rejuvenate education, resuscitate infrastructures, reinvigorate the economy, revamp the industrial sector and achieve scientific and technological emancipation end up in private vaults and pockets. The consequences of this are impaired economy, immobile technology, fractured infrastructures, ill equipped armed forces, unmitigated poverty and unprecedented brigandage and banditry. This paper does not intend to contribute to the oversubscribed debate on the origins, theories and causes of corruption in Africa; rather, it addresses the question of the option(s) that could best combat systemic corruption in Africa. The paper argues that neither the altitudinal factor nor constitutional provisions could combat corruption in Africa and concludes that only attitudinal change or the confrontation option could liberate the continent from systemic corruption. The descriptive and analytical method of historical research was employed in the analysis of the data obtained for the study.

The main causes of corruption in Romania

Corruption is a mass phenomenon which can be almost harmless in small doses, but is able to undermine a country’s national economy once it is out of control, generating chaos and, in extreme cases, even civil wars. The phenomenon exists in all countries and all kinds of management regimes (democracy, totalitarism, etc.). In Romania, corruption is caused by the low standard of living (compared with citizens of West-European countries), but also by the general mentality of people, which prove to be quite permissive and at large with the existence of the phenomenon. This research aimed at analysing the main causes underlying corruption. Since the phenomenon is quite complex, a set of heterogeneous variables was chosen (GDP per capita, the percentage of people who have at least a high school education of the total population of each county, the share of employees in the public sector in total employment, the average time of a trial and the average jail time) that can depict the phenomenon, and especially its evolution over time. Such an analysis was conducted in all counties of Romania, Bucharest also being added for comparability reasons and due to some specific features. Finally, the whole scientific approach was organized in the form of a table that categorizes each territorial unit in an area of higher or lower risk level in terms of corruption size.