Causal Meaning Research Articles

Processos de aumento e de diminuição de valência verbal em Oro Wari’ (Wari/Pacaa Nova, Txapakura)

Este trabalho tem por objetivo oferecer uma breve descrição e análise de operações de mudança de valência verbal verificadas na língua Oro Wari’ (Pacaa Nova, família Txapakura). Vamos mostrar dois processos que aumentam a valência verbal: a causativização e a aplicativização. Em termos descritivos, a partícula {araɁ} introduz o significado de causação e adiciona um novo argumento agente (o causador) à estrutura argumental. Essa língua possui ainda as seguintes partículas aplicativas: {win}, {miʔ}, {het}, {ka} e {pe}, as quais introduzem um argumento na estrutura verbal com as funções semânticas de comitativo, beneficiário, fonte, alvo e locativo. Investigaremos ainda três categorias de diminuição de valência: o reflexivo {ʃiye-}, o recíproco {kaɾakan} e o intransitivizador {maw}. Nas construções reflexivas e recíprocas, uma estrutura sintática é usada para indicar que alguém ou alguma coisa está realizando uma ação sobre ou para si. Contudo, como os argumentos de sujeito e objeto são referencialmente idênticos, apenas um participante é expresso. Finalmente, a partícula {maw}, a qual gera estruturas estativas resultativas, é a categoria de mudança de valência que remove o argumento agente da posição de sujeito, e o argumento paciente deve ocupar a posição de sujeito.

Semantic detail in the developing verb lexicon: An extension of Naigles and Kako (1993).

Verbs are often uttered before the events they describe. By 2 years of age, toddlers can learn from such an encounter. Hearing a novel verb in transitive sentences (e.g. The boy lorped the cat), even with no visual referent present, they later map it to a causative meaning (e.g. feed) (e.g. Yuan & Fisher, ). How much semantic detail does their verb representation include on this first, underinformative, encounter? Is the representation sparse, including only information for which they have evidence, or do toddlers make more specific guesses about the verb's meaning? In two experiments (N = 76, mean age 27 months), we address this using an event type studied by Naigles and Kako (); they found that when toddlers hear a novel transitive verb while simultaneously viewing a non-causative referent-a contact event such as patting-they map the verb to the contact event. In Experiment 1 we replicated this basic result. Further, toddlers' representations persisted over a 5-minute delay, manifesting again during a retest. In Experiment 2, toddlers heard the verbs while watching two actors converse instead of while seeing contact events. At test, they showed no evidence of mapping the verbs to contact events, either initially or after a 5-minute delay, despite that in prior work they mapped verbs to causative events under identical circumstances. We infer that on hearing a novel verb in a transitive frame, absent a relevant visual scene, toddlers posit a more specific representation than the evidence requires-one that incorporates causative semantics. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/aRCqSTbr6Bw.

‘목적어 있는 피동문’에 대한 재고(再考)

In the transitive sentence, the ‘whole-part’ construction can be assumed to be composed of ‘topic-object’. So, the composition of ‘topic-object’ in the active sentence corresponds to the composition of ‘topic-subject’ in the passive sentence. However, ‘passive sentence with object’ is outside of this correspondence relation.BR The verb in the ‘passive sentence with object’ should be regarded as a transitive verb with passive meaning. It is difficult to set up a passive sentence containing a transitive verb because there is no complex sentence-marker.BR If this ‘passive sentence with object’ can be interpreted as having causative meaning as well as passive meaning, there is no reason to regard it as a passive sentence.BR Consequently, the verb in the ‘passive sentence with object,’ which has ‘EXP’ as its subject, should be regarded as a transitive verb with the passive or causative meaning. So, ‘passive sentence with object’ is not a typical passive sentence, and the suffix in ‘passive sentence with object’ is not a phrasal passive suffix.BR

‘V1+V2’구조의 사동의미 파생 및 어휘적 사동과의 차이

‘V1+V2’구조의 사동의미 파생 및 어휘적 사동과의 차이

The participle form of causative verbs in Dangme

AbstractThis paper presents a descriptive analysis of verbs with the participle marking affixes in expressing causatives in Dangme, a language that belongs to the Kwa group of the Niger-Congo family of languages. The paper examines the syntax and the semantic perspectives of the participialized form of causative verbs in the Role and Reference Grammar’s (RRG) theory in Dangme. The participle is an affix which expresses the completion at the final stage of a process. As a verbal affix, it can take objects and have tense or aspect in languages. They also indicate active agency (actor) and an agency receiving an action (sufferer). Generally affixes that express participial are in two forms: the finite and non-finite categories. Unlike Akan and other languages that have both forms, Dangme has just the non-finite category which of two forms. The two non-finite forms of the verb in Dangme are the participle and the gerund. The gerund affix {-mi} denotes a new word class from verbs in Dangme, (noun). The participle on the other hand has adjective-like characteristics and it is expressed mostly with the front vowels of Dangme: /i, e, ԑ/. It is to be noted that to form the participle in Dangme, two processes are required. Firstly, the verb stem is reduplicated either partially or totally depending on the shape of the verb stem. The reduplicant then selects a front vowel of the same tongue height of the vowel of the verb stem. The words formed imply a process of change caused by a causer. For the purpose of this paper, my focus is on the participial affix used in expressing causative meaning in Dangme.

Say What You Mean, and Mean What You Say: Rebuilding the Building Blocks of But-For Causation

What does ‘causation’ actually mean? Is saying that an act ‘caused’ an outcome linked to an observable notion of cause and effect; or is such a statement based upon supposition and guesswork? This early draft article begins to break down and rebuild the term ‘causation’, and what is required to ‘prove’ a causal link in Canadian law. Courts, theorists, and practitioners have never neatly grasped the core of what causation means. The way science approaches cause is, by necessity, different to the way law approaches cause. The standards and nomenclature in the former are necessarily precise and ordered; the standards in the latter are, perhaps unnecessarily, less precise and disordered. This early draft (to which critical comments are greatly appreciated) works through the haze of imprecise language to begin to unearth what causation does, or perhaps should, mean.

A Study on a Causative Construction of ‘X-key ha-ta’ from the Viewpoint of Construction Grammar

This paper aims to characterize ‘X-key ha-ta’ as a kind of causative construction on the lexicon from the viewpoint of construction grammar. First of all, we observed that a meaning of this ‘ha-ta’ can be interpreted differently and this have no any specific lexical meaning depending on the context. This means that the linguistic unit to express a causative meaning is not ‘(-key) ha-ta’ verb but ‘X-key ha-ta’ construction itself. The distinguishing characteristics of this construction which support the claim of this paper are as follows: (1) Only some complex sentences with ‘X-key’ adverbial clause can be paraphrased as ‘X-key ha-ta’ construction, (2) The causer and the causee should be different, (3) The case marker combined with the causee can be alternated with other case markers, (4) The clausemate condition of the negative polarity item cannot be applied to ‘X-key ha-ta’ construction (5) Some of ‘X-key ha-ta’ constructions can be ambiguous, (6) Some adjective verbs which cannot be used as X of ‘X-key’ adverbial clause are used as X of ‘X-key ha-ta’ construction.

STRUCTURE OF CAUSATIVE CATEGORY IN PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION (ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH VERBS TO CAUSE AND TO MAKE)

The paper deals with studying special features of English causative verbs to cause and to make in passive construction. The conclusion is drawn that the given verbs in passive construction have certain differences. Having their causative meaning, they form different semantic situations. The verb to cause forms a situation: «B is caused by A» whereas the verb to make forms the situation «Y is made to do/ become P». Their semantic difference results in the syntax variation. The passive construction with the verb to cause must definitely contain information about the causator, which is a subject in the structure. The verb to make in passive construction can describe 1) a situation when an object of causation takes part in the process which he can’t control, or when he performs smth against his will, 2) a situation when the object of causation can’t resist performing an action, 3) an action can’t be performed without anybody’s help. As a rule, in passive construction with the verb to make the causator in not expressed.

Quasi-Causative Constructions in Mehweb

This paper investigates causative constructions in Mehweb, a lect of the Dargwa group of the East Caucasian (Nakh-Daghestanian) language family. In Mehweb, it is possible to build a causative construction by using a causative predicate and the predicate of caused action. Originally such verbs conveyed the meaning of physical causation of motion and left the causee on its own. Constructions of this kind do not qualify as canonical analytic (periphrastic) causatives, because they are not fully grammaticalized. I describe them as quasi-causatives. Usually, either a morphological or periphrastic causative marker is used in one utterance. Mehweb shows some evidence for double causative marking by combining a separate verbal form as the main causative predicate with a dependent verbal form which is marked with a morphological causative affix, producing only one causative meaning.

The notion of “adjective” in Dhao A language spoken in eastern Indonesia

It is cross-linguistically defined that adjective is a word category that typically denotes quality and attributes. This category basically falls into semantic properties denoting age, dimension, values, and colours. They also indicate human propensities, physical properties, and speed. Syntactically, adjective typically functions as noun modifiers. However, many adjectives also share features with verbs and/or nouns. This makes adjectives not easy to define. Therefore, morphological and syntactic accounts are required, in addition to semantics, to define the prototypical characteristics of adjectives. This paper has shown that majority of lexemes denoting adjectival properties in Dhao share features with verbs. Although the prefix pa- can be attached to verbs and adjectives to generate causative meaning, adjectives are confined only to the second verb in serial verb construction, instead of being the predicate heads. Further, only four adjectives can function as noun modifiers in their bare forms. These latter adjectives are considered as pure or simple adjectives, while the other nine qualifying for adjectives as “recategorized” adjectives.

Incorrect Usage of Ba Construction with the Causative Meaning and How to Teach the Causative Use of 'Shi(使)' in Modern Chinese

Incorrect Usage of Ba Construction with the Causative Meaning and How to Teach the Causative Use of 'Shi(使)' in Modern Chinese

Constructional Changes of Chinese <i>Lai</i>/<i>Qu</i> in Serial Verb Constructions

Directional verbs are widely used in modern Chinese. Their constructional changes can be traced back to the Directional Serial Verb Construction in old Chinese. In this paper, we investigate the constructional changes of Chinese lai and qu from the pre-Qin period to the Medieval period from the perspective of constructionalization. This research demonstrates the following findings: Chinese Lai changes into directional verbs. The meaning of directional result constructionalizes the meaning of arrival state, but also persists the meaning of directional time and the causative meaning. Lai undergoes the changes from time deixis to state of affairs in the Medieval period. Chinese qu changes into an intransitive verb and denotes the meaning of getting to somewhere. After a series of constructional changes, Chinese qu produces a new type node and denotes a new meaning. This research proposes that the constructionalization of Chinese lai and qu in SVCs is driven by the principle of economy, and the mechanisms of metaphor and metonymy.

Subclassification of HI-Causatives in Korean

The purpose of this paper is to categorize Korean HI-causatives. Kim (1998) suggests a division into bi-clausal compositional causatives and mono-clausal lexical causatives. According to her suggestion, while compositional HI-causatives possess two verbs, lexical HI-causatives possess only one, since when the originally causative meaning is lost, the verb becomes one lexical item. However, some of the examples she provides cannot be accepted intuitively. An experiment was carried out in order to prove it. Each subject was given eight sentences, five with lexical and three with compositional causative verbs, and was asked to choose from among two pictures which they considered corresponding to the given sentence. Contrary to Kim’s (1998) suggestion, the result shows that Korean native speakers do not consider that HI-causatives are divided into two categories, compositional and lexical, but, instead, they are on a continuum from direct to indirect meaning semantically. According to this experiment, the continuum has mek-HI-ta ‘cause to eat’ at one end and pes-HI-ta ‘cause to take off’ at the far end. In addition, HI-causatives are context-sensitive, so that the context should be considered when native speakers use them.

The Surgeon General Report on Smoking and Health 50 Years Later: Breast Cancer and the Cost of Increasing Caution

Despite the Surgeon General's strong track record and the rapidly expanding body of solid scientific work demonstrating that smoking caused a wide range of diseases, the decision making process for concluding "causality" in Surgeon General reports has become increasingly cautious and defensive. Whereas, the 1964 report did not conclude that smoking caused heart disease, it recommended that "from the public health viewpoint [one should] assume that the established association has causative meaning rather than to suspend judgment until no uncertainty remains," the de facto practice has become to do just the opposite. In particular, the 2004 report reached an affirmative negative conclusion that active smoking did not cause breast cancer and the 2006 report on passive smoking only found the link "suggestive." In contrast, in 2005 the California EPA found both active and passive smoking caused breast cancer in younger women. The evidence has continued to strengthen since 2005: there are now 12 large cohort studies that consistently demonstrate a dose-response relationship with smoking before first birth and increased breast cancer risk. The Surgeon General's increasing caution is preventing young women around the world from appreciating the risks that smoking and secondhand smoke pose for developing breast cancer.

Some features of the causal links in different cultures

This article touches upon the problem of the meaning of causation and its role in forming and functioning of linguistic and cultural map of the world. The author comes to the conclusion, that in a process of consideration of problems concerned with methods of causal connection organization some specific national features of different nations' relations to some categories, like cause and effect are exposed. The knowledge of the reasons of different events and phenomena occurring in a society assists in a much more successful realization of multicultural communication.

More on how and why: a response to commentaries

We are grateful to the commentators for taking the time to respond to our article. Too many interesting and important points have been raised for us to tackle them all in this response, and so in the below we have sought to draw out the major themes. These include problems with both the term ‘ultimate causation’ and the proximate-ultimate causation dichotomy more generally, clarification of the meaning of reciprocal causation, discussion of issues related to the nature of development and phenotypic plasticity and their roles in evolution, and consideration of the need for an extended evolutionary synthesis.

Involving Epidemiological Expertise into Causation: How to Cope with the Science Charade

What is fascinating about causation is that on the one hand it is essential for market players and society to rely on definite rules and principles with regards to causation in order to allow for benefits from investments in trust. On the other, neither the lawmaker nor judges provide a definite answer to when causation in torts and insurance is established. A vast number of juristic literatures has tried to shine some light on the proper meaning of causation but has “left a trail of doubt and uncertainty.” Although lawyers emphasize that causation is a legal notion and hence needs to be determined legally, non-legal experts have always played a crucial role in the assessment of legal causation and thereby liability and amount of harm. Philosophers such as Hegel and Kant, physiologists such as Johann v. Kries and economists from the Chicago school of law and economics have tried to provide some answers for the causation problem in law. It is therefore no wonder that other expert groups such as recently epidemiologists have claimed for ground in the legal debate on causation. I will evaluate whether epidemiological expertise may contribute to solving the problem of legal causation and whether there are limits to this approach. I will test from a legal point of view if and how the involvement of epidemiological expertise can contribute to overcoming the weaknesses of contemporary causation theories and where it intensifies them (II). I will conclude that epidemiological expertise may provide one form of probability that the association under question is causal in the sense of factual causation. However, factual causation forms only one facet on the judicial balancing exercise. Epidemiological research may, if any, hence provide an indication for causation only, which forms one facet of the judicial balancing exercise when assigning costs on the parties (III).

Esamojo laiko formantas <em>-st-</em> išvestiniuose latvių kalbos veiksmažodžiuose

Esamojo laiko formantas <em>-st-</em> išvestiniuose latvių kalbos veiksmažodžiuose

Rytų baltų <em>CiR</em> tipo veiksmažodžiai

Rytų baltų <em>CiR</em> tipo veiksmažodžiai

<em><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana;">R</span>ìšti </span></em><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">tipo veiksmažodžių esamojo laiko morfologinė struktūra</span>

THE MORPHOLOGICAL PRESENT TENSE STRUCTURE OF risa TYPE VERBS Summary The verbs of the type risa in Lithuanian and Latvian dialects or in other indoeuropean languages have many parallel-forms of different morphological structures. Beside the forms with zero-formant one also can find infix- and the n , i suffix-f о rms . Ancient, protoindoeuropean, can be those of the structure CeiC-o or CeC-o (zero-formant) and Ci-n-C or CiC-n (nasal infix or suffix-formants). They had been used without semantic difference (usually active). In East Baltic this system has changed. New verbal types appeared by the unification of the root vowel and semantic differentiation: a) the new verbs with the structure CeiC-ia, CieC-ia or CeC-ia ( ia -stern), CI С- a ( a- stem) and the relics of ancient infixial verbs become (or preserve) the active (causative) meaning (e. g. kneibia, kniebia, kniba, knimba „sticks”, kreikia, kriekia, krika „spreads”), b) the new infixial (or sta- stem) verbs acquire the mutative (resultative) meaning (e. g. knimba „bows”, krinka „brakes up”).