Catholic View Research Articles

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

Abstract The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates a supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil. It thus had a more logical and rigorous theological argumentation at its disposal in its exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, the question of who has the right to reward and punish, the consequences of reward and retribution, and so on. This article begins by analyzing the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). Secondly, it sketches the views expressed by the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then, it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and also examines the responses of the native religions of China to the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the similarities and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As for the intention to do good, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement to promote good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, they were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution, and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of the Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil has undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

"El evangelio del papel moneda de Miguel Antonio Caro: Dinero y poder en la Colombia decimonónica"

ABSTRACT: Miguel Antonio Caro is known as one of the most lucid conservative thinkers of nineteenth-century Latin America. His antiliberal thinking came to define what it meant to be a Catholic man of letters in Colombia and beyond. Today, he is mostly remembered for his work on linguistics, Latin translations, and the 1886 Colombian Constitution. However, Caro was also the most recalcitrant defender of paper money of his time. In press articles, he developed what can be described as a Hispanic Catholic theory of monetary signs. While he is often portrayed as an anti-modern ideologist, the financial dimensions of his writings reveal a very different picture. Vindicating a Spanish tradition of currency debasement that went back to Alfonso the Wise, the Colombian ultramontane conciliated his traditionalism with capitalism's global accumulation drive by equating paper money with God's infinite gift: the divine grace. He hence proposed a Catholic view of capitalist modernity that rejected the "evils" of utilitarianism but embraced Colombia's agro-exporter economic model as part of God's providential design. In his political-religious project, money is thus imagined as a key tool of the Christian oikonomia , that is, God's government of earthly affairs.

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil, thus it had a more logical and rigorous theological arguments. It had exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, who has the rights to reward and punish, and the results of reward and retribution and so on. This article firstly analyzes the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). It secondly illustrates the view of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and it also reviews the responses of the native religions in China to Catholic view of rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the sameness and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As to the intentional to do goods, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement of promoting good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, there were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

Interreligious Perspectives on Suffering A Comparative Study of the Theory of Original Sin in Catholic Theology and the Theory of Avidy in Mahayana Buddhism

This study will compare and discuss the Catholic view of original sin and one of the fundamental ideas of Mahayana Buddhism, Avidy, in order to assess the development of their basic theological concepts, to compare the connections and differences between the two faiths' views of suffering, to make sense of the connections between the two religions' views on suffering, life, and philosophy, and to identify ways to promote the discussion of ecumenical beliefs and to achieve greater harmony among believers of different cultures in contemporary society. A comparative study of the theological core of the fundamental theories of Catholicism and Mahayana Buddhism on the concepts of original sin and Avidy can adequately complement the direction of inter-religious theological thought and, at the same time, open up new horizons in the study of the ecumenical values of contemporary faiths and the development of religious thought.

THE CONCEPT OF INTERFAITH MARRIAGE: ISLAM-CATHOLICISM AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MORAL EDUCATIONS OF CHILDREN

The focus of this study is to provide an explanation of marriage in Islam and Catholicism and its implications for children's moral education. Interfaith marriages often raise pros and cons in society. Those who disagree think that interfaith marriage violates the rules, so it must be avoided. Meanwhile, for those who agree, consider interfaith marriage as a great gift that must be accepted and lived. In the view of Islam and Catholicism, interfaith marriages are actually permissible and of course follow the rules or provisions of each religion. This theme becomes an interesting topic of discussion in this research. The methods used in this research are the descriptive method and a critical reading of the text. This research does not intend to differentiate between Islamic and Catholic marriages but instead seeks to present Islamic and Catholic views on the concept of interfaith marriage and examine the implications of moral education for children in these two major religions. Islam and Catholicism realize that children are a gift, so they should be formed, educated, and fostered. Parents are primarily responsible for the moral education of their children because from them children learn about life.

Contemporary Catholic Approaches to the People, Land and State of Israel. Edited by Gavin D’Costa and Faydra L. Shapiro

Recognizing the multidimensional challenge of the Israeli–Palestinian situation, the editors (lay Catholic and Orthodox Israeli academics) led a June 2018 conference in Jerusalem where Catholic scholars presented papers before Jewish and Arab respondents. Many revised their papers in light of questions and discussions. The book contains twelve essays in four sections. Sections include essays written around the themes of “Listening Again to Scripture,” “Mining the Tradition,” and “Seeking Justice and Peace,” with a final section containing two Jewish responses. The biblical heritage is examined from the perspective of the Second Vatican Council, its Declaration on the Church’s Relation to Non-Christian Religions (Nostra aetate), and recent developments in the Catholic teaching authority. Lawrence Feingold (USA) sees the Jewish return to the Land as a sign pointing to the fulfillment of history with the coming of the Messiah, but without reference to certain Evangelical Protestant interpretations. Etienne Vetö (Rome) explores the place of Palestinians (Christian and Muslim) in the Land under Jewish control. He argues that “what is at stake is a purified or transfigured conception of the land … which includes a call to share the land” (p. 23). Christian Rutishauser SJ (Switzerland) discusses the Land and State of Israel with a sketch from the Hebrew Bible to the present, pointing to the final days. He draws attention to major questions to be discussed by Catholics in contact with Jewish scholars, especially with regard to Israel. Gavin D’Costa (England) discusses the biblical background for a Catholic view of Jews in the State of Israel. Palestinians have a right to a state/homeland as well. David Neuhaus (Israel–Palestine) offers a decades-long personal experience that bridges the dichotomies of life in Israel and the West Bank. All should “be at home and enjoy citizenship in a political entity that guarantees the common good” (p. 190).

Ekumenický dokument Od konfliktu k spoločenstvu (2013) vo svetle vývoja postoja Katolíckej cirkvi k Lutherovi a jeho reformačnému hnutiu

The article offers an analytical reflection on the ecumenical document From Conflict to Communion. Lutheran­-Catholic Common Commemoration of the Reformation in 2017. It specifically addresses how the person, theology, and Reformation work of Martin Luther are presented in the document. This reflection also extends to addressing the question of whether and to what extent this presentation corresponds to past and present Roman Catholic views of the Reformer and the Wittenberg Reformation, as expressed through the opinions of the institutional leaders of the Roman Catholic Church. The author concludes that despite the positive results of the evangelical­-Roman Catholic dialogue and the openness of the Catholic Church authorities towards Luther, his person, doctrine and Reformation pose a problem for the Roman Catholic Church, the resolution of which is still to come.

The Catholic View on Discontinuing Treatment

The Catholic View on Discontinuing Treatment

Kenyan Catholics’ Religiosity and Understanding of Marriage on the Basis of Individuals Associated with Shalom Center in Mitunguu: Educational and Pastoral Perspective

This article presents the results of research into religiosity and understanding of marriage among a selected group of young Catholics, all of whom are current students or graduates of Shalom Center in Mitunguu, Kenya. The goal of our study was to determine the correlations between the two variables so as to reach some conclusions and suggestions for religious education and pastoral care. The research made use of Stefan Huber’s Centrality of Religiosity Scale, while the respondents’ understanding of marriage was analyzed with the use of a questionnaire prepared by the authors of this study. As our research shows, one’s Catholic understanding of marriage increases alongside an increase in interest in religiosity and in one’s religious convictions, while it does not correlate—or does so only weakly—with a centrality of religiosity. Correlations with centrality occurred more often among men than among women. Mutual connections were most frequent among the youngest group of respondents, those who were up to 20 years of age and current students. This may indicate that religious formation and education of youth in the Shalom Center exerts a clear impact on shaping Catholic views on marriage. With the passing of time, traditional cultural precepts seem to gain prominence among the graduates.

The Garden Atonement and the Mormon Cross Taboo

The Garden Atonement and the Mormon Cross Taboo

WHO ARE WE TEACHING AND WHY ARE WE TEACHING THEM? THOUGHTS ON MUSICAL DIVERSITY IN UNIVERSITY COMPOSITION TEACHING

AbstractMusical composition has traditionally been taught with the assumption that students share musical backgrounds and have similar aims. In today's highly diverse musical world, however, composition students are exposed to a multiplicity of musical languages. They develop their personal creative styles from an internal conceptual ‘melting pot’ and must also develop compositional methodologies for a potentially large array of disparate usages. This article argues that the teaching of composition should recognise both the rich global diversity of musics and the plethora of uses to which compositional techniques might be applied, and that such teaching might most productively be focused on imparting a broad selection of technical concepts from many musics, coupled with an interrogation of the underlying purposes of techniques taught. All musics must be treated as equally worthy of study and students’ embodied experiences respected. Curricula need to be designed with such a catholic view in mind, encouraging students to embrace the growing profusion of genres, techniques and resources available and develop a flexible, broadly informed and resourceful outlook.

Nicholas Wiseman, The Dublin Review, and the Oxford Movement: A Study with Reference to John Henry Newman, 1836 to 1845

AbstractIn 1836, a new Roman Catholic periodical, The Dublin Review, was founded by Nicholas Wiseman, Michael Joseph Quin, and Daniel O'Connell. Though religion was only one aspect of its intended focus, the place and identity of Roman Catholicism in post-emancipation Britain was a major emphasis. Of particular focus was the Oxford Movement (1833–1845), otherwise known as Tractarianism. Wiseman, then rector of the English College, Rome, had paid close attention to the Oxford Movement since 1833 and, via the Dublin Review, would critically engage with Tractarian literature and ideas. This paper examines this engagement from 1836 to 1845, discussing Wiseman's polemical responses to the Oxford Movement. Paying attention to the pre-history of the Dublin Review, its importance as a periodical, and its significant influence upon a handful of the leading Tractarians, especially John Henry Newman, Wiseman emerges as an influential polemicist and apologist. Respectful of Tractarian learning and zeal, Wiseman was nonetheless unambiguous in his criticisms of Tractarian ecclesiology—relentless especially in his promotion of the view that the leaders of the Oxford Movement should convert to Roman Catholicism. By 1840, the year Wiseman arrived in England as a bishop, the Dublin Review had significantly dented Newman's confidence in the Tractarian project. Wiseman, the future Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster, had, by means of the Dublin Review, made Roman Catholic views on Tractarianism known, heard, and felt in Oxford and Britain. In the case of John Henry Newman, who became a Roman Catholic in 1845, Wiseman could claim a significant victory.

Premarital Sex in State-Socialist Poland: A Generational Perspective

In this article, we examine personal narratives on premarital sex by two generations of Polish men and women—one born in the 1950s and 1960s, and their parents’ generation, born in the 1920s and 1930s and coming of age during or after World War II—and place these in dialogue with discourses surrounding young sexuality in state-socialist Poland. Using sociological surveys, popular sexological literature, and Catholic marriage preparation material, we contextualize accounts of premarital heterosexual experiences, provided through oral history interviews and contest memoirs—ego documents submitted for autobiographic writing competitions in the 1960s and 1970s. We show there was no clear division between public secular and Catholic approaches to premarital (hetero)sexuality, with both opposing sexual experimentation before and beyond marriage throughout the state-socialist period (1945–1989). However, across the same period, young people’s acceptance of premarital sexual experimentation increased and the importance of a woman remaining a virgin until marriage declined. Our analysis of discourses and experiences reveals the connections and intersections of secular and Catholic realms. While secular experts did not conceptualize premarital sex as a sin, they often mirrored Catholic views by framing their discourse in terms of love, sex, responsibility, and potential risk. Young people negotiated various elements of these teachings in their premarital sexual practices, which, during the final decades of state socialism, were largely normalized, especially when couples were planning to marry.

Catholic Theistic Evolution

Going back to 1950, several Catholic Popes have stated that believing that evolution takes place in nature does not conflict with believing in God or the Catholic faith. Yet disagreement about theistic evolution persists among Catholics. Several popes have stated that to combine an evolutionary view with a Catholic view we must consider the methods used in various branches of knowledge. To do this, we must keep consciously in mind the distinctions between science, metaphysics, philosophy, and theology. This perspective about the branches of knowledge serves to rebut various charges that Catholicism is incompatible with evolution.

Bibliography (in English) for 2020

Bibliography (in English) for 2020 David Bratman (bio) Primary Sources Tolkien, J.R.R. [Letters to Mary Fairburn, 24 May and 4 Sept. 1968]. Borne on the Wind: Memoirs of an Artist. By Mary Fairburn. Castlemaine [Vic.]: Kelly & Rose, 2020. 320, [436–37]. ———, trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl and Sir Orfeo. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Rev. ed. London: HarperCollins, 2020. Books Cirilla, Anthony G., and Vincent E. Rone, ed. Mythopoeic Narrative in The Legend of Zelda. New York: Routledge, 2020. Doyle, Mark. Utopian and Dystopian Themes in Tolkien's Legendarium. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2020. Garth, John. The Worlds of J.R.R. Tolkien: The Places that Inspired Middle-earth. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2020. Glyer, Diana Pavlac, ed. Journey Back Again: Reasons to Revisit Middle-earth. Azusa, CA: Azusa Pacific University, Honors College, 2020. ———. A Merrier World: Unsung Virtues in Tolkien's Middle-earth. Azusa, CA: Azusa Pacific University, Honors College, 2020. Halsall, Michael John. Creation and Beauty in Tolkien's Catholic Vision: A Study in the Influence of Neoplatonism in J.R.R. Tolkien's Philosophy of Life as "Being and Gift." Eugene, OR: Lutterworth Press, 2020. Hilder, Monika B., Sara L. Pearson, and Laura N. Van Dyke, ed. The Inklings and Culture: A Harvest of Scholarship from the Inklings Institute of Canada. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2020. Hooker, Mark T. Tolkienian Glôssology: Or a Study of the Primitive Elvish Vocabulary of Tolkien's Qenya Lexicon and Gnomish Lexicon from the Late 1910s, the Precursors of Quenya and Sindarin. North Haven, CT: Llyfrawr, 2020. Jahosky, Michael T. The Good News of the Return of the King: The Gospel in Middle-earth. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2020. McBride, Sam. Tolkien's Cosmology: Divine Beings and Middle-earth. Kent, OH: Kent State UP, 2020. Neubauer, Łukasz, ed. Middle-earth, or There and Back Again. Zurich: Walking Tree, 2020. Snyder, Christopher A. Hobbit Virtues: Rediscovering Virtue Ethics through J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. New York: Pegasus, 2020. Vink, Renée. Gleanings from Tolkien's Garden: Selected Essays. Beverwijk [Netherlands]: IJmond, 2020. Widdicombe, Toby. J.R.R. Tolkien: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020. Articles and Book Chapters Abalea, Gaelle. "Death as a Gift in J.R.R. Tolkien's Work and Buffy the Vampire Slayer." Journal of Tolkien Research 10.1 (2020). Alvarez, Carla. "Melchizedek, Bombadil, and the Numinous in The Lord of the Rings." An Unexpected Journal 3.1 (Spring 2020): 75–92. Anderson, Brendan. "The Girl in the Woods: "On Fairy Stories" and the Virgin Horror." Journal of Tolkien Research 10.1 (2020). Anderson, Douglas A. "Index to The Journal of Tolkien Research, Volume 1 through Volume 9 issue 1." Journal of Tolkien Research 9.2 (2020). Annear, Lucas. "Vowel Category and Meanings of Size in Tolkien's Early Lexicons." Journal of Tolkien Research 9.2 (2020). Armstrong, Jensen. "A Narrative Quest." Glyer, Journey 19–41. Badger, Keith. "In Search of Bombadil: Tracking J.R.R. Tolkien's Keeper of the Forest." Parabola 45.3 (Fall 2020): 103–9. Beal, Jane. "Saint Galadriel? J.R.R. Tolkien as the Hagiographer of Middle-earth." Journal of Tolkien Research 10.2 (2020). Beech, Martin. "In the Moon Gleaming." Mallorn 60 (Summer 2020): 24–27. Birks, Annie. "Game of Thrones Seen through the Prism of Tolkien's Theory on Fairy Stories." Hither Shore 14 (2017 [2020]): 235–49. Blackham, Bob. "Tolkien in King's Heath." Mallorn 61 (Winter 2020): 35–37. Błaszkiewicz, Bartłomiej. "On the Concept of Hope in the Work of J.R.R. Tolkien." Kwartalnik Neofilologiczny 67 (Jan. 2020): 23–39. ———. "J.R.R. Tolkien's The Fall of Arthur in the Context of the Medieval Tradition of Romance." Neubauer 71–82. Borowiec, Łukasz. "From Wilderland to East End and Back Again: On the Links Between Harold Pinter's The Dwarfs: A Novel and J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit." Roczniki Humanistyczne 68.11 (2020): 65–80. Bowman, Nathaniel. "Courage." Glyer, Merrier 137–51. Boyd, Craig A. "Augustine, Aquinas, & Tolkien: Three Catholic Views on Curiositas." Heythrop Journal 61.2 (Mar. 2020): 222–33. Bradley, Jacob L. "Providence...

Médicos-apóstoles de Cristo. La Sociedad Belga de San Lucas y la creación de una identidad médica católica, 1900-1940

This paper examines the medical identity propagated by the Belgian Saint Luc Society. By scrutinizing the society’s journal Saint-Luc Médical, it shows how the society forged and spread a model for being a Catholic physician, a ‘physician-apostle for Christ’. Our analysis reveals that lay apostolate, a central element of the interwar Catholic Action movement, was at the heart of this new professional identity. It imbued an older vocational discourse with decidedly Catholic views of doctors’ social responsibilities. The paper first places the society’s foundation within the broader history of Belgian medical sociability. Secondly, it looks at how the society functioned as a laboratory for unifying Catholicism and Medicine. Here physicians and theological advisors discussed and created Catholic infused medical ideas. Lastly, the article considers how society’s journal transmitted an image of the ideal physician to its readership. Catholic doctors reading Saint-Luc Médical were expected to follow strict deontological advice and theological guidelines. This way, the journal cultivated a sense of moral superiority towards non-religious colleagues.

Catholicism and the Natural Law: A Response to Four Misunderstandings

This article responds to four criticisms of the Catholic view of natural law: (1) it commits the naturalistic fallacy, (2) it makes divine revelation unnecessary, (3) it implausibly claims to establish a shared universal set of moral beliefs, and (4) it disregards the noetic effects of sin. Relying largely on the Church’s most important theologian on the natural law, St. Thomas Aquinas, the author argues that each criticism rests on a misunderstanding of the Catholic view. To accomplish this end, the author first introduces the reader to the natural law by way of an illustration he calls the “the ten (bogus) rules.” He then presents Aquinas’ primary precepts of the natural law and shows how our rejection of the ten bogus rules ultimately relies on these precepts (and inferences from them). In the second half of the article, he responds directly to each of the four criticisms.

First and Second Thessalonians

Nathan Eubank’s commentary on 1 and 2 Thessalonians is a welcome contribution to the Catholic Commentary on Sacred Scripture series. It ably meets the series goals of a scholarly work based on a historical literary method that is informed by prayerful theological reflection. Its clarity of expression ensures that its target readership (those engaged in or training for pastoral ministry, and others interested in studying Scripture) will benefit from Eubank’s thoughtful exegesis. It represents a conservative Catholic position that seeks to explain the text 1 and 2 Thessalonians in the context of both the rest of Scripture and also the tradition of the church. In particular, the use of the “Biblical Background” and “Living Tradition” sidebars locates Eubank’s exegetical decision within this wider framework in a way that enables even the lay person to understand his reasoning.The commentary proceeds in the usual manner: an introduction to the letters (pp. 16–28), an outline of the structure (pp. 29–30), and then more detailed exegetical notes on 1 Thessalonians (pp. 31–137) and 2 Thessalonians (pp. 138–94), before ending with a list of suggested resources (pp. 195–96), a glossary (p. 197) and two indexes—pastoral topics (p. 198) and sidebars (p. 199).In the introduction, Eubank outlines the cases for and against Pauline authorship of 2 Thessalonians before concluding that Pauline authorship is more likely. Further, he favors the traditional ordering of the epistles (1 Thessalonians precedes 2 Thessalonians), briefly explains the genre of first-century letters in order to enable understanding of Paul’s modification of the genre to meet his purposes, and outlines how the letters have been accepted and understood in the history of the church.Eubank’s exegesis is based on the New American Bible Revised Edition (NABRE) but he is not afraid to discuss the underlying Greek when necessary. This is done via transliteration so that the reader who has no Greek can still grasp the discussion. The exegesis focuses on units rather than verses (although verses are indicated in the margins), and each exegetical section is followed with comments on how to apply the text. The units under consideration are keyed to significant OT, NT, and Catholic writings so readers can locate the exegesis in the broader themes of the Scriptures and the church. In order best to cater to the intended audience, footnotes and technical discussion are kept to a minimum. This in no way indicates Eubank’s disinterest in the issues but rather demonstrates his ability to make difficult things simple for the reader by cutting to the heart of the matter. In this regard, he understands Paul’s description of himself in 1 Thess 2:1–12 as a moral example to follow rather than a defense of his apostolicity, 1 Thess 2:13–16 as original and not a post-Pauline interpolation, and 1 Thess 4:3–8 to be talking about husbands, wives, and sex within marriage. In 2 Thess 2:6–7, Eubank argues that the restrained is most probably a supernatural power like an angel.The strengths of this commentary are many: it is clearly written so even the engaged layperson could read it while not being so simple that it loses its value for the seminarian or pastor. It represents a conservative Catholic understanding of 1 and 2 Thessalonians, but this does not impede its fair discussion and assessment of others’ views. However, these strengths also form part of its weaknesses. It is not a technical commentary, so researchers will not be drawn to its discussion—they will prefer Malherbe, with whom Eubank sides on most things of note. In particular, its interaction with the Greek text does not venture much beyond semantic choice so there is little discussion of syntactical decisions and their contribution to meaning. While it may be unfair to criticize Eubank on not achieving something that was never his intention, it needs to be observed in order to clarify who will use this commentary.Overall, this commentary is an excellent representation of a conservative Catholic view of 1 and 2 Thessalonians that suits an undergraduate readership. It will not find much reading in postgraduate courses or research.

Narrative and personhood

This article sets out a Christian theological anthropology for community development. This critical engagement with traditional and doctrinal forms of Christian theological anthropology will analyse two contrasting perspectives of theological anthropology to construct a contemporary community development model that considers the responsibility of communities for community development. The theological model of community development considers narrative as an interlocutor of personhood and community development. This article further investigates conceptual linkages between personhood and community development through classification or categorisation of Catholic and Eastern Orthodox views of personhood. I will use the narrative as a lens to interpret the two perspectives and identify foundations for a triad community development model of personhood, narrative, and community development.

De Natura: The Church Fathers on Creation's Fallenness

De Natura:The Church Fathers on Creation's Fallenness Matthew T. Warnez B.H. Introduction "Who gave the mosquito its stinger for sucking blood? How narrow is the tube by which it sucks! Who has arranged this? Who has made this?"1 These modern-seeming questions were in fact those of Augustine's fifth-century congregation. Augustine plied his usual rhetorical vigor to dismiss the "the problem of natural evil"—as we call it today—and yet his hearers' doubts have persisted down to our own times. Indeed, pace Augustine, it would seem the problem of natural evil has become only more vexing to Christians in the post-Darwinian era. If the animal kingdom was made through a cruel, evolutionary process, and if the wrath of God fails to justify (at least in modern minds) the woes of—say—pandemics, then, should we not suppose that lower creation is fallen? But if it is, how did it happen? Or, if it is not, why does it so often seem fallen?2 Many conservative Christians today, when pressed on such questions, will suppose that lower creation was somehow soiled by the Fall of man. In addition to ostensibly reifying the literal sense of Genesis 3:17–19 (or Romans 8:19–22), this "negative" view of lower creation carries the advantage of a winsome theodicy. For, if all creation was vitiated by Adam's sin, [End Page 933] then God is not to be blamed for natural disasters, mass extinctions, or animal suffering—though presently "thorns infest the ground," the whole world was originally free from pain and death.3 In pastoral settings of all denominations, this tends to be the "received view," not usually requiring explication nor apology. Attractive as this theodicy may be, however, it flies in the face of an evolutionary reckoning of natural history. According to modern biology, life on earth predated man's existence by some four billion years. The fossil record, in addition to revealing that prehistoric creatures regularly died, also suggests that almost every species that ever existed is now extinct. Lest the Fall of man be pushed back into some preembodied epoch, animal death would not seem to be a consequence of the Fall at all. Indeed, some evolutionary theists would go further, holding that man's Fall had no direct effects on nature. According to this "positive" view, both before the Fall and after, animals persisted in their natural behaviors: killing, dying, and gradually evolving. Thus, only the former view offers a happy theodicy, and only the latter harmonizes with modern science. But what is the Catholic view? Although the fallen version is sometimes presumed in modern Catholic theology,4 the magisterium has never authoritatively addressed the question. Thus, and since the meaning of the Bible is often contested on this point, it becomes important to establish the opinions of the Church Fathers.5 Unfortunately, recent decades have seen the publication of only a few, partial surveys of patristic eco-theology with respect to the Fall,6 most of which have been all-too-obviously prejudiced, whether by creationist,7 [End Page 934] evolutionary,8 or conservationist9 ideals. Admittedly, an incomplete and prejudiced survey is one of the few ways to make sense of the data: the Fathers had a surprising amount to say on this question, and their opinions, which varied considerably, are scattered haphazardly throughout their writings. To make matters worse, in the patristic age, the subject rarely received a sustained treatment, and even more rarely did the Fathers comment on each other's views. While I have attempted to set my own biases aside (let the reader be the judge), I can hardly boast, in light of such difficulties, to have produced an exhaustive study of the Fathers. Nevertheless, I do believe this essay constitutes the most comprehensive such study to date, and I do believe my conclusions, though not exceptionless, are adequately representative. In the course of my analysis there emerged two predominant opinions, opinions it seemed right to title by their most influential exponents: Irenaeus and Augustine. Irenaeus took the negative stance (i.e., that Adam's Fall had certain immediate and negative effect upon...