Classical Routing Protocols Research Articles

A comprehensive and systematized review of energy-efficient routing protocols in wireless sensor networks

In the past decade, research community has paid a good attention towards energy-efficient data routing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). WSNs have left an imprint in various areas, but sensor nodes are battery powered having limited lifetime. So, while designing the routing protocols, the prime concern is reducing the energy consumption and elongating the lifetime of the network. In this review, we have done comprehensive review on routing protocols focusing on prolonging the network lifetime. We have proposed different classifications of routing protocols to have the in-depth knowledge about the literature. These are operation based, environment based, objectives based and a combined form of these along with discussed papers. Thereafter, strength and weakness of the papers are found by doing a comparative analysis and further, a feature-based analysis is done as well to get a quick insight about the network models. Subsequently, future directions are discussed. This review article is written with a clear objective, which is to enable the beginners who want to do research on energy efficiency of the WSNs, by equipping them with understanding of different methods of achieving the same objective and grouping them with the similarity of their utility.

Highly Anonymous Mobility-Tolerant Location-Based Onion Routing for VANETs

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) have received considerable attention in recent years. Like any other network, privacy and anonymity are a requirement in VANETs. Classic anonymous routing protocols such as onion routing algorithm are fragile in mobile networks due to frequent link breaks. In this article, we propose a novel onion-based anonymous routing protocol for highly mobile vehicular networks. It introduces the concept of location-based dynamic relay groups. In this concept, vehicles dynamically form groups around specific locations to act as cryptographic onion relays. The proposed protocol satisfies source anonymity, destination anonymity, and route anonymity features and is very scalable. Employment of pseudo-IDs further helps in keeping the real identity of vehicles anonymous. The proposed protocol can modify the chain structure on the fly and make it longer to maintain source/destination location anonymity or cut it short to maintain performance. The extensive simulations conducted based on the SUMO traffic simulator showed that the proposed protocol significantly outperforms the naive onion routing protocol in terms of delivery ratio, delay and number of retransmissions.

A Review on Routing in Internet of Things

Recently, internet of things has drawn attention among the academicians, governments and engineers from various sectors. There are many critical issues in IoT such as security, scalability, big data analytics. Availability, interoperability, performance, mobility. This paper focus on providing optimal routing among the various networking environment such as wired wireless and sensors in the IoT. In this paper the major research issues involved in the existing routing protocols to meet the requirements of internet of things are reviewed the major issues involved in the design of a routing protocol and the different classification of routing protocols are studied. The major challenges of the internet of things, must address the problem of dynamic topology, scalability, mobility of nodes and limited bandwidth. The review covers different kinds of routing protocols such as reactive, proactive, hybrid, location aware, hybrid, multicast, multipath, Geocast, power aware and hierarchical existing geometric routing protocols have been sensibly studied which involves discussion on routing techniques, the advantages and disadvantages of the existing work area analysed in order to help the future researchers. The analysis of existing routing protocols is carried out based on shortest path, least transmission time. Finally, a research open challenge in routing which needs to be addressed by the research and academic community are discussed.

Classification of Routing Protocols Based on Routing Metrics in Cognitive Radio AD HOC Networks

Cognitive radio ad hoc networks are opportunistic networks, which utilize licensed spectrum. The spectrum assigning authority has divided the spectrum in to two regions: licensed and unlicensed. The unlicensed bands are clogged while licensed bands are underutilized. So unlicensed traffic needs to be shifted to unused licensed portion of the spectrum. Henceforth, Cognitive Radio Networks are proposed. These networks were having an infrastructure just like base station in cellular network. Cognitive radio ad hoc network are special wireless ad hoc networks having cognitive capability. In these networks, devices are able to adapt according to the environment. These devices are designed to operate in different frequency ranges. Routing data in this kind of network is a bit challenging due to its different nature. This paper discusses these challenges in detail. Later a detailed discussion is presented on the existing approaches used to handle these challenges. A clear & concise analysis of every approaches is preformed which leads to identification of merits & demerits of each of these approach. Lastly, identification of various routing metrics which need to be considered while designing a new routing protocol for cognitive radio ad hoc networks has been made.

Latency and energy-efficient multi-hop routing protocol for unmanned aerial vehicle networks

Unmanned aerial vehicle is one of the main announced use cases of 5G/IMT2020, which is expected to have various applications in many fields. These devices have limited capabilities in terms of energy and processing. Due to the complex structure of unmanned aerial vehicle networks and the high mobility constraints, design of efficient routing protocol, for supporting such network, is a challenge. Thus, efficient routing of data among unmanned aerial vehicles between source and destination is an important issue in designing unmanned aerial vehicle networks. Proactive routing protocols are one of the main categories of routing protocols developed for mobile ad hoc networks and vehicular ad hoc networks. Optimized link state routing protocol is one of the most common proactive routing protocols that has been modified to support unmanned aerial vehicle networks, considering high mobility feature of the network. In this work, we propose a latency and energy-efficient proactive routing protocol for dense unmanned aerial vehicle networks, with high-density devices, based on optimized link state routing protocol algorithm, referred to as multi-objective optimized link state routing protocol. The proposed routing protocol is topology aware and can be used for low-latency and high-mobility applications. The proposed multi-objective optimized link state routing protocol routing algorithm considers all modified versions of optimized link state routing protocol and introduces a novel method for selecting multipoint relay nodes that considers the traffic load on the communication channel and the load on each unmanned aerial vehicle node. Moreover, the proposed algorithm considers the communication link stability and the energy constraints. The system is simulated over a reliable environment for various scenarios, and it is compared to the original optimized link state routing protocol and its modified versions. Simulation results indicate that the proposed protocol achieves higher efficiency in terms of latency, energy, and reliability.

A quantum network stack and protocols for reliable entanglement-based networks

We present a stack model for breaking down the complexity of entanglement-based quantum networks. More specifically, we focus on the structures and architectures of quantum networks and not on concrete physical implementations of network elements. We construct the quantum network stack in a hierarchical manner comprising several layers, similar to the classical network stack, and identify quantum networking devices operating on each of these layers. The layers responsibilities range from establishing point-to-point connectivity, over intra-network graph state generation, to inter-network routing of entanglement. In addition we propose several protocols operating on these layers. In particular, we extend the existing intra-network protocols for generating arbitrary graph states to ensure reliability inside a quantum network, where here reliability refers to the capability to compensate for devices failures. Furthermore, we propose a routing protocol for quantum routers which enables the generation of arbitrary graph states across network boundaries. This protocol, in correspondence with classical routing protocols, can compensate dynamically for failures of routers, or even complete networks, by simply re-routing the given entanglement over alternative paths. We also consider how to connect quantum routers in a hierarchical manner to reduce complexity, as well as reliability issues arising in connecting these quantum networking devices.

A novel routing method for social delay-tolerant networks

The lack of continuous connectivity and a complete path from source to destination makes node communication quite difficult in Delay-Tolerant Networks (DTNs). Most studies focus on routing problems in idealized network environments without considering social properties. Communication devices are carried by individuals in many DTNs; therefore, DTNs are unique social networks to some extent. To design efficient routing protocols for DTNs, it is important to analyze their social properties. In this paper, a more accurate and comprehensive metric for detecting the quality of the relationships between nodes is proposed, by considering the contact time, contact frequency, and contact regularity. An overlapping hierarchical community detection method is designed based on this new metric, and a tree structure is built. Furthermore, we exploit the overlapping community structure and the tree structure to provide message-forwarding paths from the source node to the destination node. The simulation results show that our Routing method based on Overlapping hierarchical Community Detection (ROCD) achieves better delivery rate than SimBet and Bubble Rap, the classic routing protocols, without affecting the average delay.

Reinforcement Learning-Based Data Forwarding in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks with Passive Mobility.

Data forwarding for underwater wireless sensor networks has drawn large attention in the past decade. Due to the harsh underwater environments for communication, a major challenge of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is the timeliness. Furthermore, underwater sensor nodes are energy constrained, so network lifetime is another obstruction. Additionally, the passive mobility of underwater sensors causes dynamical topology change of underwater networks. It is significant to consider the timeliness and energy consumption of data forwarding in UWSNs, along with the passive mobility of sensor nodes. In this paper, we first formulate the problem of data forwarding, by jointly considering timeliness and energy consumption under a passive mobility model for underwater wireless sensor networks. We then propose a reinforcement learning-based method for the problem. We finally evaluate the performance of the proposed method through simulations. Simulation results demonstrate the validity of the proposed method. Our method outperforms the benchmark protocols in both timeliness and energy efficiency. More specifically, our method gains 83.35% more value of information and saves up to 75.21% energy compared with a classic lifetime-extended routing protocol (QELAR).

Wireless Sensor Network MCDS Construction Algorithms With Energy Consideration for Extreme Environments Healthcare

With the enhancement of people's health awareness, more and more users are willing to wear portable micro-health monitoring equipment and communicate with remote medicine center for real-time diagnosis. Although, under normal circumstances, users' health status can be detected at any time, in extreme circumstances, such as earthquakes, how to make the medical center monitor user data for a long time for rescue will be of great significance. In this paper, we will study the networking of portable wearable devices based on wireless sensor networks. We mainly use minimal connected dominating sets (MCDSs) to organize nodes in extreme environments effectively, form virtual backbone networks, send data to the rescue or medical personnel, and maximize network lifetime. Specifically, we propose an adverse dominator selection procedure (ADSP), where the dominators are selected by their children-independent nodes. The ADSP has two versions, which are Independent node degree-based Adverse Dominator Selection Procedure (IADSP) and residual Energy-based Adverse Dominator Selection Procedure (EADSP). Based on IADSP and EADSP, two approximation MCDS construction algorithms named Independent node degree based MCDS (IMCDS) and Energy-efficient Independent neighbor-based MCDS (EIMCDS) are proposed, respectively. Both of them have the message complexity as O($N\Delta $ ). The performance ratio of IMCDS has an upper bound as O($\sqrt {N}$ ). The simulation results show that IMCDS and EIMCDS perform well in terms of CDS size, and the routing algorithm based on EIMCDS has better energy efficiency performance than that of IMCDS and classical routing protocol.

A Balanced Energy Consumption in Mobile Ad hoc Network

Mobile ad-hoc network is a type of network, self-organized and self-configurable, very useful when it is not economically practical or physically possible to provide a wired network infrastructure. These futures make MANET becomes more and more used in many domains. However, this kind of network still suffers from various types of limitations. Among these limitations, and the biggest one is the energy consumption. The classical routing protocols proposed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), in its establishment of the routes, select the route that has a minimal number of hops between the source and destination, while they do not take in consideration the energy level or the lifetime of the intermediate nodes. In this work, we propose a solution, which is based on the Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol. In our proposed solution, we tend to obtain a sufficient result in terms of the stability and lifetime of the different path in the network, by adding the lifetime and residual energy among the selection criteria of the AODV routing protocol. The different simulation results show that our enhanced protocol outperforms EQ-AODV (Energy and QoS supported AODV) and the basic AODV by reducing significantly the energy dissipation, also enhances certain parameters of quality of service that are affected by the energy issue.

A Location-Aware Waypoint-Based Routing Protocol for Airborne DTNs in Search and Rescue Scenarios.

In this paper, we propose GeoSaW, a delay-tolerant routing protocol for Airborne Networks in Search and Rescue scenarios. The protocol exploits the geographical information of UAVs to make appropriate message forwarding decisions. More precisely, the information about the future UAV’s motion path is exploited to select the best UAV carrying the message towards the destination. Simulation results show that the proposed solution outperforms the classic DTN routing protocols in terms of several performance metrics.

A Robust Fault-Tolerant and QoS Centric Routing Protocol for Mobile-WMSNs: FTQ-RPM

Objectives: In this study we developed a routing protocol named Fault-Tolerant QoS Centric Routing Protocol for WMSN (FTQ-RPM) where the classical RPL routing protocol was augmented with mobility features and multiple network condition parameters based parent node selection for forwarding path selection. Methods/Statistical Analysis: Fault-resilient routing protocol for Low power Lossy Networks (LLNs) which is applied in parallel to the link layer that once detecting any link outage initiates node discovery. The use of Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Expected Number of Control Packets (ETX) based best parent node selection makes FTQ-RPM to achieve fault-resilient routing decision. In addition, RSSI based mobility management or mobile node positioning makes data communication more reliable than the random mobility. It assures reliable data communication over mobile-RPL based WMSNs. FTQ-RPM applies a global link repair model and supplementary forwarding path selection that works in parallel to the link layer of the native-RPL. It assures timely data delivery through supplementary path without imposing any additional computational overheads, delay and energy exhaustion during any link-outage condition. Findings: The overall developed routing protocols have been examined in terms of throughput, real-time data delivery, packet loss, delay, power consumption, resource utilization etc, where the proposed systems have been found superior than state-of-art existing protocols. Application/Improvements: It affirms the suitability of the proposed routing protocols for real-time WMSNs applications particularly for IoT. Keywords: Fault-Tolerant Routing, Low Power Lossy Networks, Mobility, Protocol, Quality of Service, WMSN

Ship Navigation System Based on Wireless Sensor

To study the application of wireless sensor in the ship dynamic positioning system, the distributed fusion function model and structure model of wireless sensor network were set up.Using the DJC model-based SVM prediction algorithm, the quadratic optimal performance index in ship dynamic positioning MPC control was solved and the optimal control thrust was obtained.According to the classic cluster routing protocol, a data fusion structure based on residual energy and dormancy scheduling mechanism was proposed. The results showed that the proposed routing protocol based on the residual energy and sleep scheduling mechanism data fusion structure was superior to the Leach protocol. It improved the real-time performance of data transmission. Thus, the network data fusion structure achieves the goal of energy balance. The energy consumption is reduced to a certain extent and the design is reasonable.

Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey

This paper presents a survey on the MAC and network layer of Wireless Sensor Networks. Performance requirements of the MAC layer are explored. MAC layer protocols for battery-powered networks and energy harvesting-based networks are discussed and compared. A detailed discussion on design constraints and classification of routing protocols is presented. Several routing protocols are compared in terms of such parameters as: energy consumption, scalability, network lifetime and mobility. Problems that require future research are presented. The cross-layer approach for WSNs is also surveyed.

A Flocking-Based on Demand Routing Protocol for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

The interest shown by some community of researchers to autonomous drones or UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) has increased with the advent of wireless communication networks. These networks allow UAVs to cooperate more efficiently in an ad hoc manner in order to achieve specific tasks in specific environments. To do so, each drone navigates autonomously while staying connected with other nodes in its group via radio links. This connectivity can deliberately be maintained for a while constraining the mobility of the drones. This will be suitable for the drones involved in a given path of a given transmission between a source and a destination. This constraint could be removed at the end of the transmission process and the mobility of each concerned drone becomes again independent from the others. In this work, we proposed a flocking-based routing protocol for UAVs called BR-AODV. The protocol takes advantage of a well known ad hoc routing protocol for on-demand route computation, and the Boids of Reynolds mechanism for connectivity and route maintaining while data is being transmitted. Moreover, an automatic ground base stations discovery mechanism has been introduced for a proactive drones and ground networks association needed for the context of real-time applications. The performance of BR-AODV was evaluated and compared with that of classical AODV routing protocol and the results show that BR-AODV outperforms AODV in terms of delay, throughput and packet loss.

An Improved Flooding Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks Based on Network-Coding

A central question in wireless sensor network research is how to reduce the consumption of the energy of the sensor nodes. Theoretically, the network coding technology proposed by Ahlswede et al (2000) can improve the network reliability and network throughput, increase the robustness and save energy. Based on the classic flooding routing protocol, the present study proposes a new flooding control protocol, i.e. NC-Flooding for wireless sensor networks. NC-Flooding protocol introduces five mechanisms to enhance the efficiency of wireless sensor networks. As shown by MATLAB simulation results, NC-Flooding protocol reduces the number of broadcasts of wireless sensor networks, increases the throughput of the network and increases the bandwidth utilization. We conclude that NC-Flooding protocol reduces data forwarding cost and node energy consumption and extends nodes’ life cycle, thus increasing network utilization.

Impact Analysis of Node Motion on the Performance of FANET Routing Protocols

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of node motion on the performance of routing protocols of Flying Ad Hoc Network (FANET). Whether the classic MANET routing protocols are suitable for the highly dynamic scenarios is discussed based on experiments. Simulations are carried out in three mobility models summarized from real FANET application scenarios with highly dynamic environment. The concerned network performance metrics including average end-to-end delay, packet delivery fraction, network throughput and average jitter are compared respectively. The network shows different performance of different mobility models under the same conditions, the reason for which is that nodes do not have the same mobility behaviors.This paper reveals that the variation of the network topology caused by the relative speed of nodes is the main reason of the fluctuation of network performance.

On Energy-Efficient Straight-Line Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

One of the limitations of a wireless sensor network (WSN) is its limited sensor node energy resource; this necessitates an energy-efficient routing protocol that maximizes the overall system performance. Rumor routing is a classic random-walk routing protocol that, unfortunately, is not scalable and can result in spiral paths. We consider that the shortest distance between two points is a straight line and that two straight lines in a plane are likely to intersect and develop for WSNs an improved protocol called straight-line routing (SLR), in which we construct a straight path using two-hop information without the assistance of geographic information. SLR thus reduces the energy consumption of sensor nodes in WSNs. We propose enhanced schemes to improve performance and conserve more energy and, with extensive simulation results, demonstrate the effectiveness of these SLR schemes in comparison with rumor routing.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN AD-HOC WIRELESS NETWORK

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are self-configured, dynamic and multi hop networks. Routing means the movement of information from source to destination within the connected network. This paper presents some of the work done on routing protocols for ad-hoc wireless network and focuses on classification of routing protocols. The energy consumption analysis of wireless ad hoc network routing protocols under different energy models, relative performance analysis of proactive routing protocols, analyzing the behavior and performance of opportunistic routing protocols, routing in highly dynamic ad hoc networks.

A Q-Learning-Based Delay-Aware Routing Algorithm to Extend the Lifetime of Underwater Sensor Networks.

Underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) have become a hot research topic because of their various aquatic applications. As the underwater sensor nodes are powered by built-in batteries which are difficult to replace, extending the network lifetime is a most urgent need. Due to the low and variable transmission speed of sound, the design of reliable routing algorithms for UWSNs is challenging. In this paper, we propose a Q-learning based delay-aware routing (QDAR) algorithm to extend the lifetime of underwater sensor networks. In QDAR, a data collection phase is designed to adapt to the dynamic environment. With the application of the Q-learning technique, QDAR can determine a global optimal next hop rather than a greedy one. We define an action-utility function in which residual energy and propagation delay are both considered for adequate routing decisions. Thus, the QDAR algorithm can extend the network lifetime by uniformly distributing the residual energy and provide lower end-to-end delay. The simulation results show that our protocol can yield nearly the same network lifetime, and can reduce the end-to-end delay by 20–25% compared with a classic lifetime-extended routing protocol (QELAR).