Spring Catchment Area Research Articles

STUDI KEANEKARAGAMAN JENIS VEGETASI PADA DAERAH TANGKAPAN AIR WAIBURA DESA KOBASOMA KAWASAN HUTAN LINDUNG LEWOTOBI ILEMUDA RTK. 106 KECAMATAN TITEHENA, KABUPATEN FLORES TIMUR

The forest area in Titehena Sub-district that is highly protected is the Ilemuda Protected Forest.Ilemuda Protected Forest is one of the protected forest areas that has a high potential of forestresources that need to be preserved. However, currently there are development activities thathave converted most of the forest area into agricultural land and plantations, thus affecting thediversity of vegetation types. This study aims to determine the diversity of vegetation types andregeneration status in the Waibura catchment area of Kobasoma Village, Lewotobi Ilemudaprotected forest area RTK. 106 Titehena sub-district, East Flores Regency. The vegetation typesof the Waibura catchment area of the Ilemuda Protected Forest area found 49 types ofvegetation. At the tree level, the dominating vegetation type is walnut with an INP value of22.36%, the dominating vegetation pole level is Tilo with an INP of 22.13%, the dominatingvegetation stake level is Tilo with an INP of 17.00%, the dominating vegetation seedling level isIpek with is 15.93%.The highest level of species diversity (H') at the tree level is 3.56%,followed by the pole level 3.45%, then the stake level 3.37%, and the lowest is obtained at theseedling level 3.32%. The regeneration status of vegetation in the Waibura spring catchmentarea of the Ilemuda protected forest varies. The Gari, Kajobunga, Tap, Kubak and Olakvegetation types have a "good" regeneration status. Perek vegetation type is in "fair"regeneration status. Baka, Bilo, Boja, Danga, Darat, Eheng, Foang, Halabait, Ipek, Kajuk,Kayorie, Kebahi, Kebo, Kenuna, Kukung, Kung, Lamatoro, Lekar, Maku, Nahak, Sureng, Pahi,Pao, Tebuk, Tilo, and Wu'a vegetation types are categorized as "poor" regeneration status. Thevegetation types Cocoa, Caladium, Coffee, Kue, Paku, Ti'e, Tobi and Waher are included in theregeneration status of "new". The vegetation types Bamboo thorn, Bao, Bidara, Kapo, Walnut,Nuting, Palawan tree, and Tapo are included in the regeneration status of none.

Hydrogeological characterization of karst springs of the white (Proteus anguinus anguinus) and black olm (Proteus anguinus parkelj) habitat in Bela krajina (SE Slovenia)

The springs west of Črnomelj, in SE Slovenia, are the habitat of the black (Proteus anguinus parkelj) and the white olm (Proteus anguinus anguinus). Some of these springs are also the only known habitat in the world of endemic species of black olm. A steady decline in olm populations has been observed in this area over the past decades. Owing to the rapid runoff and groundwater flow high-resolution monitoring is essential in providing better insight into the hydrogeological characterization of the catchment area of springs. Specific factors and critical parameters of water behind said olm degradation have not yet been defined. Because the olm’s environment is largely aquatic, one potential critical parameter could be the higher water temperatures (>12 °C) or higher nitrate concentration (>9.2 mg/l). The six-month observation of the springs (July – December 2021) point to water temperature as a potential critical parameter since the water temperature of the springs exceeded 12 °C in months July and August. Nitrate concentrations could also be a second critical parameter in the degradation of the olm’s habitat. Maximum nitrate concentrations above 9.2 mg/l throughout much of the observation period (except for Dobličica spring). Due to less agricultural activity in December in the spring catchment area and a higher dilution rate due to reduced evapotranspiration and increased effective precipitation during this time of the year, the nitrate concentrations are decreased. The results of the measured parameters of groundwater could show the hydrogeological connection between the Otovski and Pački breg springs and between Šotor, Jamnice and Dobličica. The Obršec spring has an independent catchment area. A detailed estimation of the springs catchment area is possible due to a detailed geologic map. It is necessary to determine the origin of the nitrate (nitrate isotope analysis), to quantify the threshold values of the critical parameters, to define precisely all the causes of the olm deterioration, and to make proposals for appropriate measures to limit or even stop the decline of the olm population.

Community adaptive capacity to drought in Kakap Springs catchment area

Water in karst areas flows deep below the surface due to geological causes, making it difficult to get pure air on the surface. The karst region has passed with drought as a result. In the watershed Kakap Springs, this paper will examine the adaptability of the community to drought. The study area covers seven villages. The evaluation uses a quantitative descriptive method based on human, social, natural, physical, and financial factors. Adaptation capacity in the research area varies with the driving factor is financial. This is because exposure to drought has been going on for a long time and every year, so people have prepared themselves financially. Intensive exposure also causes the distribution of adaptive capacity in each village to be regulated at a moderate level. It is necessary to increase social capacity so that the adaptive capacity of the community becomes higher.

Community Capacity Bulding In The Kakap Spring Catchment Area

<p>Faktor geologi menyebabkan aliran air kawasan karst terkonsentrasi di bawah permukaan sehingga masyarakat sulit dalam mengakses air. Seperti pada wilayah Daerah Tangkapan Air (DTA) Kakap yang terletak di Kecamatan Giriwoyo, Kabupaten Wonogiri, Jawa Tengah. Masyarakat pada setiap tahunnya mengalami permasalahan pada ketersediaan air. Sistem hidrologi kawasan karst juga dapat terancam karena kurangnya pengetahuan terhadap keberadaan ponor/luweng. Kondisi Ponor/luweng sendiri menjadi kurang terawat dengan dipenuhi banyak sampah baik sampah organik maupun sampah rumah tangga. Pengabdian ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kapasitas dan partisipasi masyarakat dalam konservasi di kawasan karst. Melalui Focus Group Discusion (FGD) secara partisipasi, untuk memberikan pemahaman tentang kerentanan kawasan karst sumber utama air bersih. Kapasitas masyarakat dalam mitigasi bencana kekeringan belum terbentuk dengan sempurna akibat kurangnya kesadaran dan pengetahuan akan upaya mitigasi yang dapat dilakukan secara gotong royong oleh masyarakatAbstrak dalam bahasa Indonesia mengikuti kaidah dalam Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia (PUEBI).</p>

Quantify karstic aquifer potential recharge zones by integrated hydrogeology and GIS approaches, Northern Iran

One of the main challenges facing the sustainable development of the Kalaleh region is the need for better management of this limited karstic fresh water resources. Kalaleh mountainous region in the north of Iran is drained by several karstic springs such as Zaw, Aghsoo and Yal-cheshme, having discharge rate of 20 to 2500 lit/s. The springs are mainly discharged from Lar, Tirgan, Mozduran karstic formations. In this research, the potential recharge mapping and catchment area of the major karstic springs have been investigated based on the groundwater balance and a GIS approach considering geological factors. In another part of the study, the determined primary catchment area by hydrogeological budget method was reconfirmed with geological method and the results were acceptable. Eight potential recharge contributing factors were evaluated using the GIS including drainage and slope, karstic features, lithology, land cover, precipitation and lineaments. The weights and the score of the factors were assigned based on aerial photos, geological maps, land use database and field verification. The different prepared layers were overlaid in GIS environment, and finally, the mean annual recharge rate of the karstic springs was determined which are in the range of 39-44% of the precipitation. Understanding the groundwater potential recharge zone of the Kalaleh watershed is important for management, proper utilization and future planning of water resources for sustainable management. The Lar formation has higher potential for karst development and infiltration than others. The effective karstic formations in recharging process in order of significance are Lar, Mozduran and Tirgan.

Karst Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (KAVA) Method—A Novel GIS-Based Method for Deep Karst Aquifers

Karst aquifers in the Dinaric karst are very rich with groundwater and are a very important resource for public water supply. The characteristics of the Dinaric karst are the lack, or very thin layer, of covering deposits, large amounts of precipitations, high groundwater velocities, very deep groundwater flow with a lot of faults and fault zones, pits to groundwater, concentrated sinking and large karst springs, making them extremely vulnerable to all anthropogenic influences, which are very quickly transmitted to the aquifer. Numerous multiparameter methods have been developed in the last 20 years to determine the level of vulnerability of aquifers. Each of them has its own specifics and is well adapted to the climate and region for which it was developed. The Karst Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (KAVA) method was developed in accordance with all the characteristics of the deep karst aquifers of the Dinaric karst and tested on several basins in the area. It was developed as a part of the Global Environment Facility United Nations Environmental Programme – the Mediterranean Action Plan Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem (GEF UNEP/MAP MedPartnership Project). This paper presents the KAVA method and its application to two characteristic karst basins of the Dinaric karst: the Novljanska Žrnovnica spring catchment area and the Bakar Bay catchment area.

Community-based spring conservation in Catchment area of Kemalik Lingsar, Lombok, Indonesia

Water is the main and irreplaceable need for living things, both plants, animals and humans. Springs are one of the important elements, especially in the dry season, for the survival of living things, especially humans. The availability of water can play a role in many aspects including being able to function as drinking water, bathing, latrines (MCK), washing, plantations and livestock, irrigation of agricultural land, the need to purify oneself (as a support for the implementation of worship), and the economy. Conservation of springs through programmed reforestation activities in spring water catchment areas such as those carried out by the community and the NTB government requires precise references, so it is necessary to study the relationship or role between vegetation, soil (land) and climate in the conservation of spring sources. This research was conducted in Lingsar village, Lingsar District with quantitative research methods, namely observing vegetation directly in the field in the Kemalik Lingsar spring catchment area. Field data were then analyzed to determine the stratification, diversity, structure and composition of vegetation in the study area. The structure and composition of vegetation is carried out by calculating the density, frequency, dominance and importance of each species. Based on the research results it can be concluded that the number of tree species found in Kemalik is 14 species. Mangosteen is the dominant species with an IVI value of 104% and a density of 125 ph / ha. Utilization of land in the Kemaliq spring is mangosteen-based agroforestry which has been carried out for a long time, which can be seen from the old mangosteen trees which are planted at regular intervals and arrangements and are maintained (the community has long contributed to efforts to conserve soil and water). Underplants found in Kemalik were 16 species of herbaceous, 13 species of shrubs and saplings

The potency of water availability and its use by the community around the Mount Merbabu National Park

Water is one of the basic needs for every living thing, including humans. This study aims to determine the availability of water in the two springs, the utilization of water by the community around MMNP, the vegetation characteristics of the spring catchment areas, and the Water Use Index (WUI). Data of water availability was taken using the volumetric method. Water utilization by the community is collected by doing the interviews with the respondents. The vegetation characteristics is analyzed based on the vegetation density by using the NDVI method. Meanwhile, the Water Use Index (WUI) is obtained from a comparison between water demand and water supply. The results showed that the water debit available in the Tuk Simuncar and Tuk sipendok was 23.22 liters/second and 31.20 liters/second which were classified as class IV. The area of Tuk simuncar is dominated by high density vegetation (75 Ha), while Tuk Sipendok is dominated by moderate density vegetation (102.28 Ha). The community around MMNP uses 211 liters of water for household needs, 59 liters for livestock, and 10 liters for agriculture. The Water Use Index (WUA) of the two springs has a value of 0.3 which is included in the low level.

Using Stable Isotope Analysis (δD and δ18O) and Tracing Tests to Characterize the Regional Hydrogeological Characteristics of Kazeroon County, Iran

Unpredictable climate changes are affecting water resources, especially in karst arid and semiarid areas. In such locations, the need for additional sources of water always arises. The paper gives insight into hydrogeological characteristics of Kazeroo County and resolves some unknowns around the catchment area of the springs important for water supply of the wider urban area of the city of Kazeroon, Iran, by using stable isotope analysis (δD and δ18O) and tracer test. Multiple tracer test and stable isotope analysis were conducted for research purposes. The uranine injected at Tale Milek 1 borehole was detected in the Chenar Shahijan spring in less than 2 and in the Seyed Hossein spring after 6 days. Small amounts of uranine were detected in the Sasan and Pirsabz springs. Based on the high apparent flow velocity (approximately 1750–2000 m/day), the underground system has a quick response to the precipitation during dry seasons. The assumed hydraulic connection between Shahneshin North (Asmari) and Dashtak Northzones has been confirmed by tracer test since the dye injected in Northern Asmari Shahneshin anticline appeared in the springs in Dashtak North zone. The results of water stable isotope measurements show that the catchment area of karst springs in the vicinity of Kazeroo is probably over 2000 m at the area of Shahneshin anticline and is positioned lower than the catchment area of Arjan spring.

Determining the salinity sources of the Barme Jamal karstic spring, Meydavod, Iran

The Barme Jamal is an important karstic spring with mean discharge of 1.3 m3/s, located in the Meydavod county southwestern of Iran. Its outlet appeared in the Asmari limestone formation and drains the karstic limbs of Kuhe-Safid anticline. Naturally, the spring water salinity is more than expected for a karstic spring with EC about 2100 ms/cm. The spring water contains high concentration of SO4 and Cl with Ca–SO4 water type. Therefore, hydrogeochemical studies have conducted to determine the factors controlling the spring water salinity using hydrochemical techniques such as time series of chemical parameters, relative ion concentrations, Br/Cl ratios, TOC and mixing diagrams. The potential salinity sources such as mixing of karst freshwater with evaporites formation water and oil-field brine were investigated to determine the role of each source in the spring water salinity. The results reveal that the mixing of saline waters from evaporite formations is the main source of groundwater salinity. The hydrochemical time series illustrate that EC and Na–Cl are increasing in the spring water with almost constant rate throughout the studying period suggested the evaporites karst development in the spring catchment area and extension of dissolution conduits in the contact of limestone and evaporites formations.

A groundwater tracing investigation to determine Kalisirah Karst Springs catchment area, Kebumen Regency, Central Java

Water tracing was conducted at Karangbolong Karst as a rapid assessment of the Kalisirah spring hydrological characteristics. This study was conducted to determine the movement of underground flow and the estimation of the Catchment Area using the Todd Nomogram and field observations. The results of flow tracing tests conducted in Pocung Cave indicate that there is underground river network connectivity between Pocung Cave, Jeblosan Sinkhole and Kalisirah Springs. Based on topographic survey and flow tracing test, the calculation of the estimated area of the Kalisirah catchment area is 180 Ha. The results were also validate using other parameters, namely flowrate and rainfall in the research location using Todd Nomogram. The estimated area of the Kalisirah catchment area with the Todd Nomogram is 189.2 Ha. The calculation of the estimated area of Kalisirah catchment area based on topographic survey and water tracing is relevant with the estimated area with Todd Nomogram. Groundwater tracing investigation can be used to determine karst spring catchment area, as a preliminary study to understanding the karst hydrology.

Characterization of Sludge Produced by Treatment of Water from the Ribaa and Bittit Karstic Springs (Meknes, Morocco)

Problem Statement: Surface Water Treatment for potable supplies typically involves coagulation, flocculation, and processes. All water treatment plants produce sludge, during the purification of raw water, according to the level of the water turbidity. The aluminum sulfate is the most common coagulant used in water treatment plants of Morocco, as well as in many countries all over the world. It is difficult to manage sludge produced by the treatment plant. However, several studies, based on a set of jar test experiments, have demonstrated that it can be used in the process to improve the quality of the treated water and reduce the aluminum sulfate dose. Approach: In this study, the raw water treated and sludge produced in water treatment plant of Meknes, Morocco are investigated for chemical and bacteriological proprieties. The texture characterization of the dried sludge produced through the process of coagulation/flocculation and that of aluminum sulfate, used as coagulant aid, are obtained by nitrogen adsorption isotherms. Results: The physical properties of the raw water indicate its high turbidity during periods of heavy rainfall in the Bittit and Ribaa springs catchment area. However, these chemical properties indicate the quality of fresh water rich in magnesium, related to the dolomitic nature of the liastic aquifer. The bacteriological analysis of sludge produced in the treatment plant, confirms the elimination of pathogenic germs by the treatment process used. As regards the texture characterization the results demonstrated that the sludge presents some similarities with the sulfate. However, a clear difference is observed between the two solids, according to the pores distribution. Conclusions/Recommendations: Taking aluminum sulfate and sludge in comparison, it is possible to use the sludge for improving the coagulation process in water treatment.

Characterization of Semnan thermal springs using principal component analysis and geochemical inverse modeling

Since traditional graphical methods are weak to provide a reliable result for assessing the hydrothermal circulation depth and mixing processes, principal component analysis (PCA) and inverse geochemical modeling are used to evaluate the relation between the chemical and physical parameters affecting the spatiotemporal composition of Semnan thermal springs. These waters belong to the Na-Cl water type, with the total dissolved solids of about 9847-mg/L and mean temperature of 31.5 °C. PCA extracted three components that explain 87.89% of the sample variances from a matrix of 35 monthly samples, taken from five thermal springs and analyzed for ten variables. Based on the results of the PCA, the water-rock interactions including evaporate dissolution, cation exchange, and dedolomitization control the chemical composition of thermal waters, and dilution by aquifer recharge creates the seasonal variation in water quality. Geochemical mass-balance modeling simulates the microbial SO4 reduction and silicate weathering and allows quantification of the evolution of the hydrothermal system. Based on the isotopic data, the meteoric water is the major origin of thermal waters without oxygen-18 shift. In addition, Chenaran anticline is the most probable catchment area of thermal springs based on the water balance calculation and geological setting. These results are quite convenient with the previous hydrological conceptual model obtained from the geochemical data. The present study highlights the importance of applying both PCA and inverse modeling simultaneously with conventional methods for assessing the origin of thermal water and deep understanding of predominant processes controlling the hydrogeochemical evolution in a carbonate aquifer includes low enthalpy thermal waters. This methodology has the potential for application in other regions with similar condition.

Spatial Analysis and Sustainable-Strategic Environment Management at Baron Spring Catchment Area, Karst of Gunung Sewu, Yogyakarta

Gunung Sewu’s karstic aquifer characteristic of fracture-fissure water conduit leads to pollution problem in the water resources. One main source of water used is the Baron Spring. This study aims to analyze the water quality of the Baron Spring toward the land use in the catchment area and provide recommendations for spatial planning and water management in certain area. This research used spatial analysis of GIS and water quality was analyzed by Pollution Index. The results showed that the Baron Spring was in a mild contaminated state with amount of TSS was 97,1 mg/L, bicarbonate 96 mg/L, total coliform 210 MPN/100ml, and total oil and fat 2 mg/L which have exceeded the water source quality standards. Those results are related with the land use in the catchment area where settlement is dense in the upstream, also because of the distribution of settlement and sinkhole in the middle-part of catchment. In coping with the contamination and pollution several strategies are urged to be designed and implemented. Strategies comprised by two approaches, socio-cultural and spatial approach. Each of the approaches is linked and should not be separated. Management of catchment including stakeholder involvement and spatial planning are essential to be considered.

Do composition and diversity of bacterial communities and abiotic conditions of spring water reflect characteristics of groundwater ecosystems exposed to different agricultural activities?

Modern agricultural practices have undeniably increased global food production. On the other hand, agricultural practices not only lead to a degradation of natural ecosystems but also affect the functioning of ecosystems and the related services they provide. Even though impacts of anthropogenic activities vary across ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems are among those affected to a higher degree. In comparison to surface water ecosystems, groundwater ecosystems are less affected by anthropogenic pollutants, as the overlaying soil retains organic and inorganic substances. However, it has become evident that the excessive use of fertilizers has led to the eutrophication of many aquifers. Bacterial communities, which significantly contribute to the cycling of matter due to their metabolic capacities, are prone to environmental perturbations, and structural variation of bacterial communities may consequently affect the functioning of groundwater ecosystems. Our present paper intends to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic activities on environmental conditions as well as on the structural properties of bacterial communities in groundwater. We repeatedly sampled emerging groundwater at five spring sites belonging to different catchments and determined the concentration of abiotic variables as well as the diversity and composition of bacterial communities on a local scale. We hypothesized that anthropogenic activities influence the concentration of abiotic variables, especially of nitrate, as well as the composition and diversity of bacterial communities in groundwater. Our results show that underground spring catchment areas only slightly differ regarding the concentration of abiotic variables as well as the structure of bacterial communities. Furthermore, abiotic variables, presumably influenced by anthropogenic activities, do not correlate with the diversity and composition of bacterial communities. Although supported only by circumstantial evidence, we suggest that upwelling groundwater from the deeper aquifer affects the diversity and composition of bacterial communities, and we argue that bacterial communities act as useful indicators for environmental changes.

Groundwater capacity of a flysch-type aquifer feeding springs in the Outer Eastern Carpathians (Poland)

Abstract The aim of the study is to assess the capacity of the flysch aquifer feeding springs in the Outer Eastern Carpathians using spring recession curves. The four selected springs are located in an area generally believed to be poor in groundwater. However, the selected springs were characterized by remarkably high average discharge of 3.2–9.6 L s−1. Recession coefficients were estimated which enabled an aquifer capacity and groundwater residence time assessment. Despite similarities in elevation, precipitation, and lithology in the study area, a substantial variation in the recession coefficients and aquifer parameters was found. The average aquifer capacity of groundwater subsystems strongly varied in the small study area (4.9–49 m3 × 103). The mean groundwater residence time varied from 11 days to 50 days depending on the volume of groundwater drained by the springs. Differences in discharge, recession coefficients, groundwater capacity, and residence time were related to recharge areas of different size. Simple relationships between the topographic catchment areas of springs and their hydrologic parameters can become altered by local structural features: faults and fissures. The study demonstrates that tectonically produced structures may facilitate a larger supply of groundwater and the occurrence of high-discharge springs in a given area.

Assessment of aquifer karstification degree in some karst sites on Java Island, Indonesia

This research was conducted on several springs and underground rivers in two different karst areas: the Gunung Sewu karst in the southern part of Java Island and the Rengel karst in northern Java. The objective was to determine the spatial degree of karstification in springs and underground rivers in these areas using available data on hydrograph recession. Hydrograph recession curves from eight water-level gauges in springs and underground rivers were analyzed and classified for each location based on quantitative parameters to express individual groundwater flow sub-regimes. Discharge was used to generate recessional equations, and these were related to karstification degree on a qualitative scale varying from 1 to 10. The karstification degree calculated using selected data on flood recession ranged from a low value of 3.7 in the Petoyan spring to a high value of 7.7 in the Bribin river. The value of 3.7 (low) indicates that the aquifer is dominated by a network of uniform small-sized voids (diffuse and fissure), the majority of which are open with minimal macro-fissure karst channels. Meanwhile, the value of 7.7 (high) indicates highly developed karstification of the aquifer, which is formed by large open conduits (karst channels). Furthermore, the general degree of karstification in Gunung Sewu is more developed than in the karst region of Rengel, except in the Petoyan spring, located in the western part of the Gunung Sewu karst region. Interestingly, the degree of karstification in Gunung Sewu varied. This may be due to differences in variable surface geomorphology, which is controlled by the differing solubility and thickness of the limestone beds. This study also indicates that there is a fairly strong positive relationship between the degree of karstification and the extent of the catchment area of springs.

Groundwater flow mechanism in the well-developed karst aquifer system in the western Croatia: Insights from spring discharge and water isotopes

Karst aquifers have a fundamental importance to water supply in many countries. Due to their specific hydrogeologic properties, these aquifers are sometimes difficult to use because of the high discharge variations of the karst springs and are almost always sensitive to pollution. With an aim to better understand karst aquifers, different research methods are used to study the karst groundwater system in Croatia.The spring hydrograph and the stable isotope (δ18O, δ2H) compositions in the water samples collected from the Rječina and Zvir springs and precipitation were analysed and used to characterize the karst aquifer. The recession coefficient obtained from the hydrograph analysis indicates only a fast-flow spring component at the Rječina spring. The lack of the base-flow spring component is the primary reason for the spring drying out during the dry periods. The low recession coefficient of the Zvir spring indicates a base-flow and discharge from well-drained fissures and fractures in the spring catchment area during the low water stage. A mean residence time (MRT) of groundwater was calculated for stable isotope δ18O using lumped parameter approach by applying the exponential model, combined exponential-piston and dispersion models to isotopic input (rainfall) and output (spring) data sets during 2011–2013. The MRT of 3.24 and 3.6months for the Rječina spring and 7.2months for the Zvir spring suggests recent groundwater recharge from precipitation.

Groundwater vulnerability assessment for the karst aquifer of Tanour and Rasoun springs catchment area (NW-Jordan) using COP and EPIK intrinsic methods

Groundwater vulnerability maps were constructed for the surface water catchment area of Tanour and Rasoun spring (north-west of Jordan) using the COP and EPIK intrinsic groundwater vulnerability assessment methods. Tanour and Rasoun springs are the main water resources for domestic purposes within the study area. A detailed geological survey was carried out, and data of lithology, karst features, precipitation, vegetation and soil cover, etc. were gathered from various sources for the catchment area in order to determine the required parameters for each method. ArcGIS software was used for map preparation. In the resulting COP vulnerability map, spatial distribution of groundwater vulnerability is as follows: (1) high (37%), (2) moderate (34.8%), (3) low (20.1%), and (4) very low (8.1%). In the EPIK vulnerability map, only two out of four vulnerability classes characterize the catchment area: very high vulnerable areas (38.4%) and moderately vulnerable areas (61.6%). Due to limited soil thickness, the low vulnerability class is absent within the catchment. The high percentage of very high to moderately vulnerable areas displayed by both the COP and EPIK vulnerability assessment methods are reflected by different pollution events in Tanour and Rasoun karst springs especially during the winter season. The high sensitivity of the aquifer to pollution can be explained by different factors such as: thin or absent soil cover, the high development of the epikarst and karst network, and the lithology and confining conditions of the aquifer.

Determining the groundwater potential recharge zone and karst springs catchment area: Saldoran region, western Iran

Assessing the groundwater recharge potential zone and differentiation of the spring catchment area are extremely important to effective management of groundwater systems and protection of water quality. The study area is located in the Saldoran karstic region, western Iran. It is characterized by a high rate of precipitation and recharge via highly permeable fractured karstic formations. Pire-Ghar, Sarabe-Babaheydar and Baghe-rostam are three major karstic springs which drain the Saldoran anticline. The mean discharge rate and electrical conductivity values for these springs were 3, 1.9 and 0.98 m3/s, and 475, 438 and 347 μS/cm, respectively. Geology, hydrogeology and geographical information system (GIS) methods were used to define the catchment areas of the major karstic springs and to map recharge zones in the Saldoran anticline. Seven major influencing factors on groundwater recharge rates (lithology, slope value and aspect, drainage, precipitation, fracture density and karstic domains) were integrated using GIS. Geology maps and field verification were used to determine the weights of factors. The final map was produced to reveal major zones of recharge potential. More than 80 % of the study area is terrain that has a recharge rate of 55–70 % (average 63 %). Evaluating the water budget of Saldoran Mountain showed that the total volume of karst water emerging from the Saldoran karst springs is equal to the total annual recharge on the anticline. Therefore, based on the geological and hydrogeological investigations, the catchment area of the mentioned karst springs includes the whole Saldoran anticline.