Catalyst Film Research Articles

Impact of alloying on electrocatalytic hydrogenation of benzaldehyde over sputtered NiCu film catalysts

In this work, we prepare a series of NiCu alloy film catalysts with different contents by magnetron sputtering to investigate the synergistic effect between Ni and Cu in electrocatalytic hydrogenation of benzaldehyde. The results show that alloying of Ni and Cu can significantly enhance the electrocatalytic activity of benzaldehyde hydrogenation. With the increase of Ni content, the conversion rate of benzaldehyde increases two to three orders of magnitude, and the Faradaic efficiency of the Ni-rich catalysts is higher than that of the Cu-rich catalysts. In addition, the alloy composition affects the relative coverages of H and benzaldehyde, leading to different reaction orders in benzaldehyde. The boosted electrocatalytic activity with the increase of Ni content is in accordance with the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy that increasing Ni content can decrease the charge transfer resistance of the alloy catalysts.

Optimizing photocatalytic degradation: SnO2-PVC thin film catalyst for efficient removal of acridine orange

Industrial wastewater containing hazardous organic pollutants is an emerging global issue demands efficient treatment methods. The semiconductor-mediated photodegradation has emerged as a promising solution, which gaining increased interest. This study focuses on photocatalytic degradation of Acridine Orange using thin film catalyst composed of PVC immobilized with nano SnO2. The photocatalytic efficiency of the prepared catalyst was evaluated through various experiments, and the operational parameters such as irradiation source, initial dye concentration, pH, and co-occurring ions were investigated. The catalyst demonstrated superior dye removal under UV radiation at 254 nm. The impact of pH revealed maximal degradation at pH 11. Moreover, the study explored the influence of co-occurring ions, indicating their quenching effect on the degradation process. Kinetic analysis revealed a concentration-dependent degradation rate which aligns with the kinetic model of Langmuir−Hinshelwood. The reusability of the SnO2-thin film photocatalyst demonstrated sustained activity over multiple cycles. The findings highlight the potential of SnO2-PVC thin film as a photocatalyst for dye removal, emphasizing the importance of optimizing operational parameters for enhanced efficiency.

Hydrogen production from hydrolysis of NaBH4 solution over Co–Fe–B@g-C3N4/NF thin film catalyst

Hydrogen production from hydrolysis of NaBH4 solution over Co–Fe–B@g-C3N4/NF thin film catalyst

Universal Sublimation Strategy to Stabilize Single-Metal Sites on Flexible Single-Wall Carbon-Nanotube Films with Strain-Enhanced Activities for Zinc-Air Batteries and Water Splitting.

Single-metal-site catalysts have recently aroused extensive research in electrochemical energy fields such as zinc-air batteries and water splitting, but their preparation is still a huge challenge, especially in flexible catalyst films. Herein, we propose a sublimation strategy in which metal phthalocyanine molecules with defined isolated metal-N4 sites are gasified by sublimation and then deposited on flexible single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) films by means of π-π coupling interactions. Specifically, iron phthalocyanine anchored on the SWCNT film prepared was directly used to boost the cathodic oxygen reduction reaction of the zinc-air battery, showing a high peak power density of 247 mW cm-2. Nickel phthalocyanine and cobalt phthalocyanine were, respectively, stabilized on SWCNT films as the anodic and cathodic electrocatalysts for water splitting, showing a low potential of 1.655 V at 10 mA cm-2. In situ Raman spectra and theoretical studies demonstrate that highly efficient activities originate from strain-induced metal phthalocyanine on SWCNTs. This work provides a universal preparation method for single-metal-site catalysts and innovative insights for electrocatalytic mechanisms.

Atomic layer deposition for tuning the surface chemical composition of nickel iron phosphates for oxygen evolution reaction in alkaline electrolyzers

Transition metal phosphates are promising catalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in alkaline medium. Herein, Fe-doped Ni phosphates are deposited using plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PE-ALD) at 300 °C. A sequence of f Fe phosphate PE-ALD cycles and n Ni phosphate PE-ALD cycles is repeated x times. The Fe to Ni ratio can be controlled by the cycle ratio (f/n), while the film thickness can be controlled by the number of cycles (x times (n+f )). 30 nm films with an Fe/Ni ratio of ∼10% and ∼37%, respectively, are evaluated in 1.0 M KOH solution. Remarkably, a significant difference in OER activity is found when the order of the Ni and Fe phosphate PE-ALD cycles in the deposition sequence is reversed. A 20%–45% larger current density is obtained for catalysts grown with an Fe phosphate PE-ALD cycle at the end compared to the Ni phosphate-terminated flavour. We attribute this to a higher concentration of Fe centers on the surface, as a consequence of the specific PE-ALD approach. Secondly, increasing the thickness of the catalyst films up to 160 nm results in an increase of the OER current density and active surface area, suggesting that the as-deposited smooth and continuous films are converted into electrolyte-permeable structures during catalyst activation and operation. This work demonstrates the ability of PE-ALD to control both the surface and bulk composition of thin film electrocatalysts, offering valuable opportunities to understand their impact on performance.

Monitoring changes in catalyst ink morphology during the primary drying process for polymer electrolyte fuel cells using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy

To control the microstructure formation of a catalyst layer in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell for improving its performance, we observed the real morphology changes of the catalyst ink during the primary drying process using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. Samples of the thin film catalyst ink, applied onto holey carbon grids, were prepared with different drying times (t = 0, 10, and 30 s). At t = 0, the sample exhibited platinum/carbon agglomerates surrounded by an ionomer thin film in the solvent. At t = 10, the ionomer rods became thicker, as confirmed by high magnification images. At t = 30, light spots were observed in the ionomer/solvent areas, indicating local thinning of the ionomer thin film due to solvent evaporation during the drying process. Moreover, as the drying time increased, the ionomer morphology became more visible with significantly thicker rods. This change in morphology can be attributed to the composition change of the solvent (fraction of water/normal propyl alcohol) in the catalyst ink during drying. Based on the new findings, this study discusses process design guidelines for cathode catalyst layers.

One-Step Synthesis of TiO2/SiO2-np Nanocomposite Photocatalytic Multilayer Films: Effect of Incorporation Time Sequences of SiO2 Nanoparticles during the TiO2 Film Growth.

In this article, the TiO2/SiO2-np nanocomposite multilayer films were synthesized in a single step by reactive magnetron sputtering combined with a nanoparticle aerosol jet. The SiO2 nanoparticles (SiO2-np) were introduced into a growing TiO2 thin film with different time sequences during deposition for a fixed duration. The SiO2-np acting as impurities are introduced into the TiO2 to willingly disturb its growth and to cause growth defects in order to increase the specific surface area of the photocatalytic film. In reason of the non-photoactive properties of the SiO2 nanoparticles, their introduction allows us to study only the effects induced on the film morphology, microstructure, and photocatalytic properties by their incorporation. The fractographies and topographies reveal strong changes in the morphologies depending on the time sequence of the nanoparticle introduction in the thin films. The introduction of SiO2-np from the beginning of the TiO2 film growth leads to the formation of high and large growth defects resulting in a highly diffusive surface. In addition, XRD analysis shows that the crystallite size tends to decrease as the composite film layer gets closer to the surface. Their photocatalytic performance is obtained by following the degradation of orange G dye under UV-visible irradiation. The photocatalytic performance is not only related to the specific surface area of the catalyst film, and the coverage of the photoactive phase on the surface, but also to the crystal quality of the photoactive phase. Furthermore, the samples exhibit good photostability, maintaining the same activity after four degradation cycles. In the specific case of TiO2/SiO2-np, it is demonstrated that the introduction of the nanoparticles only at the beginning of the film growth is more efficient than a continuous introduction. This result suggests that this original process allows the use of a relevant strategy for the nanoparticle introduction according to the required functionality.

The effect of intrinsic magnetic order on electrochemical water splitting

To reach a long term viable green hydrogen economy, rational design of active oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts is critical. An important hurdle in this reaction originates from the fact that the reactants are singlet molecules, whereas the oxygen molecule has a triplet ground state with parallel spin alignment, implying that magnetic order in the catalyst is essential. Accordingly, multiple experimentalists reported a positive effect of external magnetic fields on OER activity of ferromagnetic catalysts. However, it remains a challenge to investigate the influence of the intrinsic magnetic order on catalytic activity. Here, we tuned the intrinsic magnetic order of epitaxial La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 thin film model catalysts from ferro- to paramagnetic by changing the temperature in situ during water electrolysis. Using this strategy, we show that ferromagnetic ordering below the Curie temperature enhances OER activity. Moreover, we show a slight current density enhancement upon application of an external magnetic field and find that the dependence of magnetic field direction correlates with the magnetic anisotropy in the catalyst film. Our work, thus, suggests that both the intrinsic magnetic order in La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 films and magnetic domain alignment increase their catalytic activity. We observe no long-range magnetic order at the catalytic surface, implying that the OER enhancement is connected to the magnetic order of the bulk catalyst. Combining the effects found with existing literature, we propose a unifying picture for the spin-polarized enhancement in magnetic oxide catalysts.

Degrade Methyl Orange by Combining Cu2O/Al2O3 and H2O2 as Catalyst

To efficiently degrade printing and dyeing wastewater at low costs, Cu2O/Al2O3 catalyst was prepared by electrochemical method. Under its combined action with H2O2, photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange solution, as simulated wastewater, was carried out. With the aid of X-ray diffractometer, X-ray microanalysis system and scanning electron microscope, the structure and composition of catalyst film were designed by adjusting the electrochemical parameters, and the performance of photocatalyst was evaluated by the degradation rate of methyl orange. It was found that after anodizing aluminum alloy for 2 h in a 2 mol/L H2SO4 solution under a voltage of 15 V, alumina film with reasonable pore size distribution could be prepared on the alloy surface. By electroplating the film in a 0.01 mol/L CuSO4 solution at 5°C, and then hydrothermally treating it at 200°C, the Cu2O/Al2O3 photocatalyst could be obtained. The prepared Cu2O/Al2O3 and 10% H2O2 were used jointly as photocatalyst to degrade 10 mg/L methyl orange solution for 480 min, which achieved a methyl orange degradation rate of up to 82.1%.

Low-Temperature Selective Oxidative Dehydrogenation of Cyclohexene by Titania-Supported Nanostructured Pd, Pt, and Pt-Pd Catalytic Films.

Films of titania-supported monometallic Pd, Pt, and bimetallic Pt-Pd catalysts made of metallic nanoparticles were prepared by magnetron sputtering and studied in the oxidative dehydrogenation (ODH) of cyclohexene. Pd/TiOx and Pt-Pd/TiOx were found active at as low temperature as 150 °C and showed high catalytic activity with high conversion (up to 81%) and benzene selectivity exceeding 97% above 200 °C. In turn, the Pt/TiOx catalyst performed poorly with the onset of benzene production at 200 °C only and conversions not exceeding 5%. The activity of bimetallic Pt-Pd catalysts far exceeded all of the other investigated catalysts at temperatures below 250 °C. However, the production of benzene significantly dropped with a further temperature increase due to the enhanced combustion of CO2 at the expense of benzene formation. As in situ NAP-XPS measurement of the Pt-Pd/TiOx catalyst in the reaction conditions of the ODH of cyclohexene revealed Pd surface enrichment during the first temperature ramp, we assume that Pd surface enrichment is responsible for enhanced activity at low temperatures in the bimetallic catalyst. At the same time, the Pt constituent contributes to stronger cyclohexene adsorption and oxygen activation at elevated temperatures, leading to changes in conversion and selectivity with a drop in benzene formation and increased combustion to CO2. Both the monometallic Pd and the Pt-Pd-based catalysts produced a small amount of the second valuable product, cyclohexadiene, and below 250 °C produced only a negligible amount of CO2 (<0.2%). To summarize, Pd- and Pt-Pd-based catalysts were found to be promising candidates for highly selective low-temperature dehydrogenation of cyclic hydrocarbons that showcased reproducibility and stability after the temperature activation. Importantly, these catalysts were fabricated by utilizing proven methods suitable for large-scale production on extended surfaces.

Ag‐Decorated Chrysanthemum‐Like CuO–TiO2 Thin Film: Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of Rhodamine B

Photocatalysis has attracted attention as a method for purifying pollutants, but how to simply and efficiently prepare catalyst films with high surface areas is still a challenge. Herein, a chrysanthemum‐like CuO–TiO2–Ag photocatalyst is prepared by anodic oxidation and magnetron sputtering. Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrometry analyses show that Ag nanoparticles are uniformly modified on the surface of chrysanthemum‐like CuO–TiO2. Moreover, the influences of the thickness of the TiO2 film and the content of Ag nanoparticles on the degradation of rhodamine B (RhB) are studied by controlling the sputtering time. Among the prepared nanocomposites, the chrysanthemum‐like CuO–TiO2‐2.5‐Ag‐2 proves to have the maximal degradation level with regard to RhB by removing 91.16% RhB after 120 min under UV light. This is because the large surface area offers more active sites. In addition, the trapping experiments show that when CuO–TiO2 is decorated by Ag nanoparticles, this contributes to the movement of a number of photogenerated electrons from the conduction band of TiO2 to Ag, thereby improving the efficiency of charge transfer. The findings reveal that the photodegradation efficiency of the prepared nanocomposites in this study is greatly related to the thickness of the TiO2 film and the content of Ag nanoparticles.

Microzone-Acidification-Driven Degradation Mechanism of the NiFe-Based Anode in Seawater Electrolysis.

The anode stability is critical for efficient and reliable seawater electrolyzers. Herein, a NiFe-based film catalyst was prepared by anodic oxidation to serve as a model electrode, which exhibited a satisfactory oxygen evolution performance in simulated alkaline seawater (1 M KOH + 0.5 M NaCl) with an overpotential of 348 mV at 100 mA cm-2 and a long-term stability of over 100 h. After that, the effects of the current density and bulk pH of the electrolyte on its stability were evaluated. It was found that the electrode stability was sensitive to electrolysis conditions, failing at 20 mA cm-2 in 0.1 M KOH + 0.5 M NaCl but over 500 mA cm-2 in 0.5 M KOH + 0.5 M NaCl. The electrode dissolved, and some precipitates immediately formed at the region very close to the electrode surface during the electrolysis. This can be ascribed to the pH difference between the electrode/electrolyte interface and the bulk electrolyte under anodic polarization. In other words, the microzone acidification accelerates the corrosion of the electrode by Cl-, thus affecting the electrode stability. The operational performances of the electrode under different electrolysis conditions were classified to further analyze the degradation behavior, which resulted in three regions corresponding to the stable oxygen evolution, violent dissolution-precipitation, and complete passivation processes, respectively. Thereby increasing the bulk pH could alleviate the microzone acidification and improve the stability of the anode at high current densities. Overall, this study provides new insights into understanding the degradation mechanism of NiFe-based catalysts and offers electrolyte engineering strategies for the application of anodes.

Method of H2 Transfer Is Vital for Catalytic Hydrodefluorination of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA).

The efficient transfer of H2 plays a critical role in catalytic hydrogenation, particularly for the removal of recalcitrant contaminants from water. One of the most persistent contaminants, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), was used to investigate how the method of H2 transfer affected the catalytic hydrodefluorination ability of elemental palladium nanoparticles (Pd0NPs). Pd0NPs were synthesized through an in situ autocatalytic reduction of Pd2+ driven by H2 from the membrane. The Pd0 nanoparticles were directly deposited onto the membrane fibers to form the catalyst film. Direct delivery of H2 to Pd0NPs through the walls of nonporous gas transfer membranes enhanced the hydrodefluorination of PFOA, compared to delivering H2 through the headspace. A higher H2 lumen pressure (20 vs 5 psig) also significantly increased the defluorination rate, although 5 psig H2 flux was sufficient for full reductive defluorination of PFOA. Calculations made using density functional theory (DFT) suggest that subsurface hydrogen delivered directly from the membrane increases and accelerates hydrodefluorination by creating a higher coverage of reactive hydrogen species on the Pd0NP catalyst compared to H2 delivery through the headspace. This study documents the crucial role of the H2 transfer method in the catalytic hydrogenation of PFOA and provides mechanistic insights into how membrane delivery accelerates hydrodefluorination.

Fabrication and Evaluation of Particulate Matter Purification Filter Using Plasma-Sprayed Catalyst Film on SUS316 Mesh

Fabrication and Evaluation of Particulate Matter Purification Filter Using Plasma-Sprayed Catalyst Film on SUS316 Mesh

Preparation of Carbon Cloth Supported Platinum Self-Supported Catalyst Film and Its Acid Hydrogen Evolution Performance

Preparation of Carbon Cloth Supported Platinum Self-Supported Catalyst Film and Its Acid Hydrogen Evolution Performance

An electrochemical H2S sensor based on the screen printing Fe@Pt/C/PTFE sensing electrode.

A novel electrochemical gas sensor for sensitive detection of H2S at room temperature is constructed based on the Fe@Pt/C composite material. The core-shell structured Fe@Pt catalyst was synthesized by a two-step reduction method and physically dispersed in Vulcan XC-72 carbon powders. The core-shell structure increases the effective catalytic surface area of Pt while significantly reducing the usage of the noble metal Pt, leading to improved catalytic performance and decreased production costs. Additionally, the mature screen-printing process is used to coat the catalyst film. A waterproof and breathable PTFE film was used as the substrate and the parameters in the screen printing process were also optimized to achieve the best gas sensing performance of the electrode film. Through the detection of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) with different concentrations, it is found that the sensor strictly shows linear correlation in the range of 1-20 ppm, R2 = 0.99974. Notably, the sensor exhibits high sensitivity (658.45 nA ppm-1) and a low detection limit of 0.33 ppm. Moreover, the consistency and stability of the sensor are satisfactory. The constructed gas sensor is expected to be well applied to industrial H2S detection.

Facile fabrication of binary copper–palladium alloy thin film catalysts for exceptional hydrogen evolution performance

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) plays a crucial role in realizing the ambitious objectives of renewable hydrogen (H2) production and CO2 neutrality.

Co-deposition of Ni-Mo alloy film catalysts for hydrogen evolution from an ethylene glycol system.

Owing to the depletion of renewable energy sources, manufacturing stable, efficient and economical non-noble electrode materials for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) through electrochemical water splitting is a promising avenue. In this work, Ni-Mo alloy films containing different Mo concentrations were synthesized via potentiostatic technique, and the mechanism of Ni2+ and Mo6+ co-deposition in an ethylene glycol system (EG) was recorded. The co-deposition mechanism of Mo6+ and Ni2+ in the EG shows that the existence of Ni2+ can facilitate the reduction of Mo6+, while Mo6+ can impede the reduction of Ni2+. Furthermore, both functions could be reinforced owing to the improved content of Ni2+ and Mo6+ in the EG system. Ni-Mo alloy films containing different Mo concentrations could be obtained from the EG solution, and their microstructures could be changed by changing the Mo content. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs exhibit that Ni-Mo alloy films with 10.84 wt% Mo show a cauliflower-like pattern. Benefiting from the alloying technique to modify the Ni electronic structure with Mo, coupled with the concurrent presence of an appropriate cauliflower-like structure, Ni-Mo alloy films with 10.84 wt% Mo show remarkable catalytic activity and durability with an HER overpotential of 74 mV (η 10, overpotential was recorded at j = 10 mA cm-2) in 1.0 M KOH solution.

Electrochemical Polymerization of a Novel Thiophene-Derived Monomer and Its Use as Support Material for Methanol Oxidation

This research, conductive polymer supported modified electrode system which was prepared for usage in direct methanol fuel cells. To test the behavior of these electrode system for methanol oxidation, cyclic voltammetry (CV), chronoamperometry (CHR) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) methods were used as electrochemical methods. As the working electrode, pencil graphite electrode (PGE) was preferred because of its porous structure, good ion conductivity, practicality in application and ease of preparation and obtaining. Thiophene derivative 4,4')-2,2'-(diazen-1,2 diylbis(4,1 phenylene))bis(4 (thiophene-2-ylmethylene) oxazol-5(4H)-one), (DiAzBiPhBiTyOx) monomer was prepared and electrochemically polymerized by CV method in 0.01M TBAP and 0.05 HClO4 containing ACN solution on the surfaces of PGE. The spectroscopic characterization of the synthesized monomer was performed by NMR spectroscopy. Optimum polymerization conditions of monomer was determined according to scanning rate, potential range and acid density. The obtained modified electrode system (PGE/PDiAzBiPhBiTyOx) was doped with chloroplatinic acid hexahydrat-Pt2Cl6.6H2O (Pt) at different densities and the optimum catalyst density was determined as 3.25mM (PGE/3.25mMPt@PDiAzBiPhBiTyOx). The methanol oxidation performances of conductive polymer film, platinum and conductive polymer supported platinum catalyst systems were investigated separately. While the methanol oxidation responses of the conductive polymer film and platinum are almost similar, the methanol oxidation response of the platinum doped conductive polymer film catalyst system is higher. The modified electrode characterization was performed by CV, CHR and EIS methods. Furtheremore obtained modified electrode systems were characterized by FESEM/EDS, XRD to confirm the structures and morphologies. Also, the theoretical values such as electrochemical surface area (ECSA) and specific capacitance (Cs) were calculated in aqueous acidic solution with and without methanol. Cs values of the PGE/3.25mMPt@PDiAzBiPhBiTyOx electrode in aqueous acidic solution with and without methanol were 3.861 and 3x10-4Fg-1 respectively. Also, the electrochemical surface area values of the same electrode in aqueous acidic solution with and without methanol were 196.437 and 21.150m2g-1 respectively.

Towards a Realistic Prediction of Catalyst Durability from Liquid Half-Cell Tests

Half-cell measurements with rotating disc electrodes (RDE) in liquid electrolyte are a convenient and often used method to determine relevant electrochemical parameters of catalyst materials in early stage development, i.e. when small quantities and/or high number of samples need to be tested. The applicability of the obtained results to real-world systems, e.g. in form of membrane electrode assemblies (MEA) is, however, often challenging. [1] In the presented study, we focus on the reproducibility of voltage cycling-based accelerated stress testing (AST) of PEMFC cathode catalysts (Pt/C). The degradation, i.e. the extent of the different degradation mechanisms such as Ostwald ripening, nanoparticle coalescence, and loss of dissolved platinum into the electrolyte phase are strongly dependent on the environment and operating conditions, both of which differ significantly in RDE and MEA setups. [2-5] Nevertheless, the ability to make realistic predictions of catalyst durability from ASTs in early stage liquid half-cell measurements is highly desirable.To this end, we studied the degradation of a commercial 20%wt Pt/Vulcan catalyst (Tanaka) based on the loss of electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) throughout a typical voltage cycling AST with a square wave profile and potential limits of 0.6-1.0 VRHE. We systematically screened different parameters in the RDE, such as temperature, pH, rotation, electrolyte, and ionomer content, trying to determine the conditions that would yield a similar catalyst degradation rate in the RDE configuration compared to that in actual MEA measurements. Additionally, particle size distributions of the degraded catalysts were determined from TEM images to gain deeper insights into the changes in degradation mechanisms on the nanoscale. The excerpt of our results depicted in the attached figure show that the ECSA loss in the MEA could by far not be reached in typical RDE measurements carried out at room temperature (22°C). In accordance with Urchaga et al., we see that elevated temperature (80 °C) accelerates catalyst degradation in the liquid half-cell ASTs. [6] When we prepared catalyst films with Nafion® with an I/C ratio of 0.7, which is comparable to what we use in the MEA but at the same time beyond what is typically applied for RDE catalyst films, we observe an additional increase in ECSA loss in comparison to ionomer-free catalyst films cycled in 0.1 M HClO4. The high density of sulfonate groups in the ionomer lowers the local pH and they are known to adsorb on the Pt surface, which might be both factors for increased platinum dissolution-related degradation. ASTs in 1 M HClO4 and 0.05 M H2SO4 reveal that both lower pH and the presence of adsorbing anions accelerate the ECSA loss and influence the particle growth. We conclude, that high exposure of platinum particles to the sulfonate groups of the ionomer leads to faster degradation during potential cycling. We could show for Pt/Vulcan (as well as for other catalysts not shown in the attached figure) that the RDE AST can predict catalyst durability as accurately as am MEA, when relevant operating conditions (temperature) and electrode compositions (I/C ratio) are applied.[1] T. Lazaridis, B. M. Stühmeier, H. A. Gasteiger and H. A. El-sayed, Nat. Catal., 2022, 5, 363–373.[2] R. Sharma, S. M. Andersen, ACS Catal. 2018, 8, 3424–3434.[3] K. Ehelebe, D. Escalera-López, S. Cherevko, Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 2021, 100832.[4] H. Yu, M. J. Zachman, C. Li, L. Hu, N. N. Kariuki, R. Mukundan, J. Xie, K. C. Neyerlin, D. J. Myers, D. A. Cullen, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, DOI 10.1021/acsami.1c23281.[5] J. A. Gilbert, N. N. Kariuki, X. Wang, A. J. Kropf, K. Yu, D. J. Groom, P. J. Ferreira, D. Morgan, D. J. Myers, Electrochim. Acta 2015, 173, 223–234.[6] P. Urchaga, T. Kadyk, S. G. Rinaldo, A. O. Pistono, J. Hu, W. Lee, C. Richards, M. H. Eikerling, C. A. Rice, Electrochim. Acta 2015, 176, 1500–1510. Figure 1