Cashew Processing Research Articles

Experimental Investigations on Electrical Heat Assisted Drying of Cashew Kernels

Drying is an important process in food preservation. In cashew processing industries cashew kernels are dried for easy peeling of the thin brownish sticky layer known as testa. The average moisture content of 13% of the cashew kernels needs to be reduced to 5% for proper peeling action. Drying can achieved either by traditional drying methods or through dryers. Due to control of the air properties in indirect drying cashew kernels can be dried at faster rate and can retain their quality. Air flow passage also plays an important role in drying process. The objective of the study is to investigate experimentally the feasibility of drying chamber for drying of cashew kernels using electrically assisted heating. An electrical heat assisted drying system is designed and developed using locally available materials. The system uses three different drying chambers that are designed and tested for optimum drying rate of cashew kernels in three separate experiments. Drying chamber without baffle plates has resulted in reduction in moisture content to required level by 5% in three hours with drying rate of 2.8 kg/h against 6.5% and 6.8% in single tray version and four trays with baffle plate version. The drying efficiency of drying chamber is found to be 30.54%.

Phosphorus Releasing Characteristics of Ogun Phosphate Rock Acidulated with Cashew Nutshell Liquid

ABSTRACTThe phosphorus (P) release characteristic of Ogun rock phosphate (OPR) acidulated with cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL), an industrial waste, was studied under laboratory conditions for ten weeks. The results showed that the acidulation of phosphate rock with cashew nutshell liquid at a ratio of 4 to 1 released the highest quantity of available P. There was a general increase in the amount of P extracted from the phosphate rock under the influence of cashew nutshell liquid and this was more spontaneous in alkaline media. The peak of phosphorus release occurred at the 56 days of incubation following a form of stoichiometric order. We found the use of the cashew nutshell liquid in this regard as a win-win approach to not only recycle a major waste of cashew processing industries, which will help to maintain a healthy environment, but to deploy the complementary use of this waste in crop production.

Status and prospects of cashew cultivation in India-an over view

Cashew, a perennial tree well known as ‘poor man's crop ’is a source of highly priced cashew nuts. India being the leading producer, consumer and second largest exporter of cashew in the world, has a prime position in cashew trade in the world market. But the productivity level of Indian cashew is far less than that of its close competitors viz., Vietnam, Nigeria, Cote de'Ivoire, Philippines etc. The cashew processing sector in India is one of the largest in the world and has given huge employment to rural people especially the women folk. Some of the cashews processing industries in India are still under unorganized sector. Increasing demand for the nuts has necessitated the increased production. The present review is an attempt made towards understanding the Indian cashew industry in relation to its position in the global market, problems being faced by the cashew industry and the scope in future.

Performance Testing of Diesel Engine using Cardanol-Kerosene oil blend

Awareness of environmental pollution and fossil fuel depletion has necessitated the use of biofuels in engines which have a relatively cleaner emissions. Cardanol is a biofuel, abundantly available in India, which is a by-product of cashew processing industries. In this study performance of raw Cardanol blended with kerosene has been tested in diesel engine. Volumetric blend BK30 (30% kerosene and 70% Cardanol) has been used for the test. The properties like flash point, viscosity and calorific value of the blend have been determined. The test was carried out in four stroke diesel engine connected with an eddy current dynamometer. Performance of the engine has been analysed by finding the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake thermal efficiency (BTE). The results showed that the brake thermal efficiency of the blend is 29.87%, with less CO and smoke emission compared to diesel. The results were also compared with the performance of Cardanol diesel blend and Cardanol camphor oil blend, which were already tested in diesel engines by other researchers. Earlier research work reveals that the blend of 30% camphor oil and 70% Cardanol performs very closer to diesel fuel with a thermal efficiency of 29.1%. Similarly, higher brake thermal efficiency was obtained for 20% Cardanol and 80% diesel blend.

Value chain analysis of cashew processing

Value chain analysis of cashew processing

Factors affecting cashew processing by wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus, Kerr 1792).

Cashew nuts are very nutritious but so well defended by caustic chemicals that very few species eat them. We investigated how wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) living at Fazenda Boa Vista (FBV; Piauí, Brazil) process cashew nuts (Anacardium spp.) to avoid the caustic chemicals contained in the seed mesocarp. We recorded the behavior of 23 individuals toward fresh (N = 1282) and dry (N = 477) cashew nuts. Adult capuchins used different sets of behaviors to process nuts: rubbing for fresh nuts and tool use for dry nuts. Moreover, adults succeed to open dry nuts both by using teeth and tools. Age and body mass significantly affected success. Signs of discomfort (e.g., chemical burns, drooling) were rare. Young capuchins do not frequently closely observe adults processing cashew nuts, nor eat bits of nut processed by others. Thus, observing the behavior of skillful group members does not seem important for learning how to process cashew nuts, although being together with group members eating cashews is likely to facilitate interest toward nuts and their inclusion into the diet. These findings differ from those obtained when capuchins crack palm nuts, where observations of others cracking nuts and encounters with the artifacts of cracking produced by others are common and support young individuals' persistent practice at cracking. Cashew nut processing by capuchins in FBV appears to differ from that observed in a conspecific population living 320 km apart, where capuchins use tools to open both fresh and dry nuts. Moreover, in the latter population, chemical burns due to cashew caustic compounds appear to be common. The sources of these differences across populations deserve investigation, especially given that social influences on young monkeys learning to open cashew nuts at FBV seem to be nonspecific. Am. J. Primatol. 78:799-815, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cost, returns and economic viability of cashew plantations in Tamil Nadu

Cashew cultivation in India dates back to over 400 years, when the Portuguese who arrived in Kerala in the 16 th century introduced it. Initially it was cultivated to arrest soil erosion, afforestation and wasteland development programmes, but later it becomes an important cash crop. The total area under cashew in the world was 35.12 lakh hectares during 2009. In terms of area under cultivation, India ranked first with 8.93 lakh hectares constituting about one - fourth of the area under cashew in the world. To find out the costs and returns of the cashew cultivation among dry cashew cultivated farmers and irrigated cashew cultivated farmers. To estimate the economic viability of dry cashew/irrigated cashew plantations. Cashew was being cultivated as a dry crop in Cuddalore and Ariyalur districts to a larger extent. In Pudukkottai district, cashew was cultivated as both irrigated and dry crop and obviously the yield under dry condition was lesser than that of cashew grown under irrigated conditions. In the next stage, top six villages were purposively selected for the study. In each of the selected villages, 10 cashew growers were randomly selected. However, in Gandharvakkottai block of Pudukkottai district, cashew was cultivated as dry crop, while it was raised as an irrigated crop in Alangudy block of Pudukkottai district. Therefore, 30 dry cashew farms in Gandharvakkottai block and 30 irrigated cashew farms in Alangudy block were selected for the study. Thus, totally 150 dry cashew farms and 30 irrigated cashew farms were selected. Cost and returns like (i) Establishment costs and (ii) Maintenance costs were worked out. Yield and returns like, the yield and prices realized by the growers for the nuts were used to calculate the gross returns, net returns and the returns per hectare of cashew plantation. Economic viability of dry cashew varieties/irrigated cashew varieties the capital budgeting techniques like Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) were employed to assess the economic viability of cashew farms and also for cashew processing units. The gross returns were also more in irrigated farms (Rs. 43650) than that of the dry farms (Rs. 33288). The output-input ratio was 1.85, 2.03 for dry cashew farms, irrigated cashew farms, respectively. These would indicate the high profitability of cashew production was found only in irrigated farms and this was achieved by gap filling and following modern farming techniques. The Net Present Value was higher for irrigated farms (Rs. 80,027) than that of the dry farms (Rs. 57,911). In case of Benefit Cost Ratio, irrigated farms had higher ratio of 2.28 than that of the dry farms 2.03. Similarly, the Internal Rate of Return was also more for irrigated farms (42 %) when compared to that of the dry farms (37 %). This would highlight that the cashew plantation would be a financially worthwhile venture in the study area and there is a vast potential for taking up the cultivation of high yielding varieties of cashew plantation, especially in the irrigated conditions of Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu.

Activities of Lactate Dehydrogenase, Methemoglobin, Carboxyhemoglobin and Sulfhemoglobin Concentrations in the Blood of Albino Rats Exposed to Cashew Seed Fume

Smoke produced in cashew processing factories during roasting of the seed contains toxic chemicals which have adverse health effects on workers exposed to it. This study investigated the effect of cashew seed fume on lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, m...

Analysis of opportunities for greenhouse emission reduction in the global supply chains of cashew industry in West Africa

Global supply chains (GSCs) have become common for industries, and companies seek to reduce their environmental impact, particularly greenhouse gas (GHG), through their GSCs. Guided by ISO 14044, we measure and compare GHG emission of 1000 kg of cashew kernels in 12 GSCs scenarios of West Africa cashew industry, and identify opportunities for reduction. The results show that transportation, cashew processing operation and nutshells waste management produce significant proportion of the total GHG emission. Such results highlight the fact that alternatives in process units and flows in life cycle systems can reduce GHG emission of a product. Thus, limitation of transportation of raw cashew nuts for primary processing, the use of energy-efficient processing methods, and processing on large-scale gives options to supply chain managers and decision makers in the industry to reduce GHG emission. Again, making use of co-product (nutshells) reduces cashew kernels GHG emission much more than it may have been considered by most stakeholders. The challenges of measuring and comparing GHG emission in the industry's GSCs such as non-existing or inadequate quality databases are also discussed.

Foaming resol resin modified with polyhydroxylated cardanol and its application to phenolic foams

Cardanol, obtained from cashew processing industry, has attracted more and more attention from researchers for developing phenolic foam (PF) toughness. In the present work, polyhydroxylated cardanol (PHC) was obtained from CC in unsaturated side chain of cardanol under the condition of H2O2 and HCOOH, then it and phenol reacted with formaldehyde to successfully formulate foaming resol resin. The replacement percentage of phenol by PHC was up to 20% (wt/wt), 10% higher than that of literatures reported. Phenolic foam (PF) was fabricated with the above foaming resol resin and certain foaming agents. Its compressive strength and flexural strength were surprisingly increased by 57% and 56%, respectively, compared to conventional PF.

Synthesis of cashew Mannich polyol via a three step continuous route and development of PU rigid foams with mechanical, thermal and fire studies

Abstract Renewable, biodegradable, agricultural resources are gaining increasing attention of many researchers because of growing environmental awareness and their potential to replace petrochemical derivatives. Cardanol obtained from cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is a renewable resource of immense potential. Cardanol, obtained as a byproduct of the cashew processing industry, is an important renewable resource and a unique phenolic compound carrying a 15-carbon side chain in the meta position, with varying degrees of unsaturation. The current research work describes the synthesis of new bio-based cashew Mannich polyols via the stepwise oxazolidine route and confirmed by spectral analysis. The foaming characteristics were studied and the polyols were successfully used in making rigid polyurethane (PU) foams with good mechanical, thermal and fire properties. The foams were characterized for density, flexural strength, morphology and limiting oxygen index (LOI) properties.

ECONOMICS OF CASHEW PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

The by-products of cashew viz., cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), shell cake, testa and cashew apples are commercially exploitable. The method of processing technology affects the outturn, quality of the output, health of the workers, quality of by-products and the cost of production. The adoption of appropriate methods of processing technology can bring efficiency in the form of higher outturn, better quality kernels and cashew nut shell liquid. To use these by-products economically and to create awareness on the business opportunities in cashew processing, the present study attempts to find out the economic feasibility of cashew nut and oil (CNSL). The overall cost of production of kernels has been found to be Rs. 4784.11 and 4616.63 per quintal of raw nuts processed in steaming and drum roasting methods, respectively. The cost of raw material has been the major component in the cost of production of kernels, constituting 86.64 and 86.86% of the total cost of production of kernels in steaming method and drum roasting methods, respectively. The total sale proceeds from the sale of cashew kernels, shells and testa have been Rs. 5347.53 and the profit per quintal of raw nuts processed has been Rs. 563.43 in the steaming method, whereas in the drum roasting method the total sale proceeds has been Rs. 4693.62 and the profit per quintal of raw nut has been Rs. 76.99. Thus it is concluded that the steam processing method realized better returns than drum roasting method due to the adoption of latest technology in the cashew processing methods in India. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), a by-product of the cashew industry has always been credited with words such as ‘versatile raw material’. The two methods of extraction of CNSL viz., kiln method and expeller method are adopted by farmers/processors. The BCR and IRR analysis worked out to 1.13 and 41.2% in kiln method, whereas, they have been 1.15 and 45.27% in expeller method. The solutions to the problems confronting cashew nut processing lies in intensifying research in order to develop cost-effective, eco-friendly technology to boost efficiency and productivity and to reduce costs of processing.

INITIATIVES OF CASHEW DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, considered to be native of Brazil and is now found in many tropical areas. Cashew is grown in India, Brazil, Vietnam, Tanzania, Mozambique, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other tropical Asian and African countries. Presently, it is grown in more than 28 countries in the world. The major cashew producing states in India are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Andra Pradesh, Orissa, Goa and West Bengal and interior tracts of Chattisgarh, A&N Islands, Gujarath, Jharkhand and North Eastern regions. At present in India, among the various agri-horticultural commodities involved in the global trade, cashew has attained a prominent place by providing significant contribution to Indian exchequer ranking among the ten top agriculture exports contributing nearly 0.35% of the total export earnings of the country. Cashew occupies an area of 9.45 lakh ha with production of 6.53 lakh MT of raw nut as on 2010-11 with an average productivity of 720 kg/ha. The detailed Indian and global scenario on area, production and productivity, export and import, cashew processing, development initiatives, constraints and opportunities in cashew production will be presented in this paper.

CASHEW INDUSTRY - AN OUTLOOK

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. In the world cashew production takes place mainly in the three zones namely (i) Central and South American zone, (ii) Asia and Oceanic zone and (iii) African zones. In these zones there are 28 countries now involved in the production of cashew. The total raw nut production in the world is around 39.53 lakh tons from an area of 35.78 lakh ha. Four centuries ago, the adventurous Portuguese came sailing down the Indian coasts and brought with them the priceless tree nut “cashew”, the wonder nut of the world. Cashew came, conquered and took deep roots in the entire coastal region of India. Cashew found the Indian soil more homely than its homeland. Later it spread as a popular crop to other parts of India. Cashew was originally planted in India as a windbreaker and to prevent soil erosion. Also its cultivation was also considered essential as tree cover in eroded hilly areas where reforestation programmes were under way, in order to prevent further erosion. Initially cashew cultivation in India is mostly confined to the western and eastern coastal areas of the peninsular region. But now commercial cultivation of cashew in India is taken up in eight states in India. Coastal states of the country are the main production centres. The important cashew growing states of India are Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. It is also cultivated on small areas in other states of the country. India has an area of about 9.23 lakh ha under cashew with an estimated annual production of about 6.13 lakh tons of raw cashew nut with a productivity of 700 kg/ha (NHB, 2010). India is the largest producer, processor, consumer and exporter of cashew in the world. Cashew cultivation is taken up in small and marginal holdings and as more than 70% of the cashew area is under this category, cashew plays an important role in the development of small and marginal farmers. India has a comparative advantage in the production and processing of cashew nuts on account of its cheap and skilled labour force. The current production accounts for 45% of the global production. A large number of small and marginal farmers, especially living on the coastal belts of India, depend on cashew for their livelihood. Nearly 2.00 lakh workers, more than 90% of whom are women, are directly employed in cashew processing industries which are concentrated mostly in Kerala. It is estimated that nearly two million people are involved, directly and indirectly in cashew cultivation, processing and marketing. Cashew forms an important component of the basket of agricultural products exported from India. But the yield per hectare in India was poor at 860 kg/ha during 2007-08 as compared to 4,125 kg/ha in Vietnam and 2,000 kg/ha in Nigeria. There is a need to expand and fully utilize the crop potential if India has to keep pace with growing global demand, retain market share and stay ahead of the rapidly emerging competition in the world market.

Potential Assessment and Characterization of Cashew Nut Shells as Fuel

The different unit operations involved in small-scale cashew nut processing industry in the context of Konkan region of Maharashtra, India (70o172 to 74o312 E Longitude 15o372 to 20o202 N Latitude) was elucidated by conducting the randomised sample survey of registered 122 small scale cashew processing industries in the region. The survey covered the unit operations performed, level and pattern of energy consumption and technologies in use for cashew nut processing. Three readily defined smallscale cashew-processing industries were studied using maxi energy audit tool to estimate the processed cashew nut shells. The proximate analysis and calorific value of cashew shell waste was carried out using ASTMD 73–75 and ASTME 711 method, respectively. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the cashew nut shell was carried out using TG-FTIR with 10°C/min heating rate.

Performance on the evaluation of pilot cashew nut processing unit

Cashew ( Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the important tropical crops. India is largest producer, processor, exporter and consumer of it in the world. The recovery of the kernel (edible meat portion) from raw nuts by mechanical or manual means refers to processing of cashew nut. It consists of various processes in series viz., moisture conditioning, roasting, shelling, drying, peeling, grading and packing etc. A small cashew processing unit consisting of steamer, cooker, shelling machine and dryer was tested for its performance for the cashew nut variety 'Vengurla-5' (Ansure Arli). The unit has received at Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Shenda Park; Kolhapur under Technology Park sanctioned Commissioner, Agriculture M.S. and Pune. The six treatments consisting of various combinations for pressure and time were evaluated for the performance of unit. The study revealed that treatment combination (4.5 kg/cm 2 and 20 min) gain maximum recovery of whole kernels as well as over all recovery of kernels, with minimum moisture content, which is desirable for good quality product in the markets. The treatment condition consisting of keeping raw cashew nut at 4.5 kg/cm 2 pressure for 20 minutes duration for the given processing unit is best for maximum recovery of good quality kernels and overall total recovery of kernels with minimum moisture content.

Characterizing The Effect Of Sodium Sulfite On Cashew Allergens

RationaleSulfites are multipurpose compounds included in the FDAs Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list, but they can cause serious immunologic reactions in some individuals.They are commonly used as preservatives, to prevent enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning, and are found naturally in some foods. Our objective was to characterize the effect of sulfite compounds on cashew allergens.MethodsCashew extracts and purified cashew allergens were treated with sodium sulfite at various concentrations and temperatures and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS analysis identified sites of sulfite modification on cashew allergens, and cashew allergen structure was characterized by circular dichroism. IgE binding with cashew allergic patient sera was evaluated by immunoblot and ELISA.ResultsTreatment of cashew extracts with sodium sulfite at concentrations as low as 1 mM (126 ppm) altered migration of Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 on SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS and circular dichroism studies indicate that sodium sulfite targets the disulfide bonds of Ana o 3 disrupting its structure. Sodium sulfite treatment of cashew extracts reduced IgE binding to the Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 cashew allergens.ConclusionsTreatment of cashew extracts with sodium sulfite disrupts the structure of Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 allergens and reduces IgE binding. It is possible that sulfite treatment may diminish the allergenicity of cashew nuts. The potential creation of sulfite-dependent neo-antigens is unknown. Continued research is warranted to evaluate the inclusion of sodium sulfite or other sulfite compounds in cashew processing steps. RationaleSulfites are multipurpose compounds included in the FDAs Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list, but they can cause serious immunologic reactions in some individuals.They are commonly used as preservatives, to prevent enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning, and are found naturally in some foods. Our objective was to characterize the effect of sulfite compounds on cashew allergens. Sulfites are multipurpose compounds included in the FDAs Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list, but they can cause serious immunologic reactions in some individuals.They are commonly used as preservatives, to prevent enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning, and are found naturally in some foods. Our objective was to characterize the effect of sulfite compounds on cashew allergens. MethodsCashew extracts and purified cashew allergens were treated with sodium sulfite at various concentrations and temperatures and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS analysis identified sites of sulfite modification on cashew allergens, and cashew allergen structure was characterized by circular dichroism. IgE binding with cashew allergic patient sera was evaluated by immunoblot and ELISA. Cashew extracts and purified cashew allergens were treated with sodium sulfite at various concentrations and temperatures and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS analysis identified sites of sulfite modification on cashew allergens, and cashew allergen structure was characterized by circular dichroism. IgE binding with cashew allergic patient sera was evaluated by immunoblot and ELISA. ResultsTreatment of cashew extracts with sodium sulfite at concentrations as low as 1 mM (126 ppm) altered migration of Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 on SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS and circular dichroism studies indicate that sodium sulfite targets the disulfide bonds of Ana o 3 disrupting its structure. Sodium sulfite treatment of cashew extracts reduced IgE binding to the Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 cashew allergens. Treatment of cashew extracts with sodium sulfite at concentrations as low as 1 mM (126 ppm) altered migration of Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 on SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS and circular dichroism studies indicate that sodium sulfite targets the disulfide bonds of Ana o 3 disrupting its structure. Sodium sulfite treatment of cashew extracts reduced IgE binding to the Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 cashew allergens. ConclusionsTreatment of cashew extracts with sodium sulfite disrupts the structure of Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 allergens and reduces IgE binding. It is possible that sulfite treatment may diminish the allergenicity of cashew nuts. The potential creation of sulfite-dependent neo-antigens is unknown. Continued research is warranted to evaluate the inclusion of sodium sulfite or other sulfite compounds in cashew processing steps. Treatment of cashew extracts with sodium sulfite disrupts the structure of Ana o 2 and Ana o 3 allergens and reduces IgE binding. It is possible that sulfite treatment may diminish the allergenicity of cashew nuts. The potential creation of sulfite-dependent neo-antigens is unknown. Continued research is warranted to evaluate the inclusion of sodium sulfite or other sulfite compounds in cashew processing steps.

Assessment of Cleaner Production Level in Agro based Industries – A Fuzzy Logic Approach

Cleaner Production (CP) is a preventive environmental strategy and across the globe there are plenty of success stories of its initiatives which have not successfully transcended to realize the fruits. In this context, there is a need to promote CP initiative to help the industry, society and environment. Hence, present level of CP is to be assessed which facilitates exploring the potential for further CP. This underscores the need for developing a methodology to estimate the CP level. Generalizing the evaluation of assessment of CP is difficult due to heterogeneous nature of operations in industries. The application of fuzzy logic assists in addressing this complexity by offering a methodology that can be adapted to any type of organization by identifying the appropriate variables. This paper presents a model developed to assess the CP status and implementation of this model on 22 cashew processing units. In the assessment of CP level, contributing parameters viz., process efficiency, environmental degradation, and sustainability aspects are considered. Various dimensions of each contributing parameter is identified and measured in the overall estimation of CP level. The result of the study has useful policy implications for catalyzing the CP initiatives.

Export performance of Indian cashewnut – An analysis

The Indian Cashew industry provides employment to more than 5 lakh people both directly and indirectly, particularly in the rural areas and it thus plays a very vital role in the economy. Today nuts constitute an important part of diet in several countries of the world. In Indian cashew processing factories, over 95% of the workers are women. The total export earnings from export of cashew kernel and cashew nut shell liquid has increased from 447.80 crores in 1990–91 to 4390.68 crores in 2011–12. India is facing tough competition from Vietnam and Brazil in the exports of Cashew Kernels. The NPC for the period 2004 under exportable hypothesis was 0.98, which also revealed that the domestic prices received by the farmers were lower than the international prices, which also implied that the domestic producers were disprotected or rather taxed compared to a situation prevailing under free trade condition. USA was one of the most stable countries among major importers of Indian cashew kernel as indicated by the high retention probability of 70.49%. India could not retain the previous export share to Singapore. The major competitors for India in the world market are Vietnam, Brazil, Indonesia and Tanzania. A dependency on one or two export market would increase the trade risk in the near future. Hence, appropriate export promotion strategies are to be evolved to diversify the geographical concentration.

Jobs, Votes and Legitimacy: The Political Economy of the Mozambican Cashew Processing Industry's Revival

This article seeks to explain the revival of the Mozambican cashew processing industry after it was virtually wiped out by liberalisation policies at the turn of the millennium. Over the last decade state, private and external actors have cooperated to rehabilitate cashew processing with a concerted industrial policy and rents generated by protection. It is argued that such rent creation is a political process and that theories of ‘good governance’ and ‘developmental neopatrimonialism’ are unable to explain political support to the cashew sector in Mozambique. The ‘developmental state’ literature is a more useful guide not only to how the industry was rehabilitated, but also to where the political ‘will to develop’ originated in other contexts. Following from this discussion, it is argued that in Mozambique an elite ideology of nationalism, modernisation and anti-imperialism paved the way for protection of the cashew industry, while more active support was a result of more immediate concerns around finely balanced elections, inadequate employment generation in the broader economy and the faltering legitimacy of the ruling party.