Cashew Plantations Research Articles

Cultivar Type and Nut-Sowing Orientation Influence Germination and Plant Vigor in Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.)

The germination of cashew nuts and the quantitative plant vigor of the seedlings as influenced by small, medium, and large Indian and Brazilian cashew cultivars and five nut-sowing orientations (nut-side/side-positioning, stalk-end facing up, stalk-end facing down, scar-end facing up, and scar-end facing down) were investigated. The results of data collected on percentage germination, stem girth (cm), plant height (cm), number of leaves, leaf area (cm2), and dry matter yield showed that genotype and nut-sowing orientations significantly influence percentage germination (P < 0.05). Brazilian cultivars with medium nuts, irrespective of sowing orientations, had better germination than other genotypes. Brazilian cultivars with large nuts sown on nut-side and Indian cultivars with medium nuts sown on nut-side and with stalk-end up had germination percentage ranging between 86.7% and 100% at 4 weeks after sowing (WAS), while Brazilian cultivars with large nuts, Indian cultivars with medium and small nuts sown with scar-end down, and Indian small with stalk-end down had the lowest germination percentage of between 26.7% and 46.7%. The Brazilian cultivars with large and medium nuts both sown on the nut-side and stalk-end up produced higher dry matter yield of between 6.9 and 7.4 g/plant, while Indian cultivars with small nuts, in all sowing orientations, produced the least dry matter yield of between 0.73 and 2.5 g/plant. This empirical information will guide the farmers in the selection of planting materials and seed propagation for the successful establishment of cashew plantations with healthy and vigorous seedlings.

Trends and Overall Growth Analysis of Cashewnut Cultivation in Kerala

Even in the 21st century, agriculture is the major source of livelihood for majority of Indian population. But agricultural sector is under the big threat of economic reforms like liberalization and modernization of economy. The agrarian economy of Kerala could not exclude from the drastic hitting of the liberalization, privatization and globalization reforms; farmers of the state began to think that there is no other way to sustain their life. Cashewnut is one of the major cash crop became the victim of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) reforms. The export of agricultural produce make it difficult to get a better price for cashewnut and so many diseases are also contributing in the crisis of this cultivation. The area under cashew cultivation has started coming down over the years and the decline in area and yield growth rate was responsible for the negative growth rate in production for cashewnut and the share of real components is negative for the overall growth of output of this crop compared to monetary components and unless there are concerted efforts by the government to create awareness among cashew growers on scientific cultivation methods, there will be a conversion of cashew plantations into rubber plantations.Keywords: Growth trend, Cashewnut, Crop output, Overall growth, Real growth, Monetary growth.

Hydrological Impact of Bioengineering Conservation Measures on Cashew Plantations in Lateritic Soils of Konkan Region

Hydrological impact of various bioengineering conservation measures viz. Half-moon Terraces + Vetiveria zizanioides + Stylosanthes scabra, continuous contour trench + Vetiveria zizanioides + Stylosanthes scabra, graded trench + Vetiveria zizanioides + Stylosanthes scabra, staggered contour trench + Vetiveria zizanioides + Stylosanthes scabra and semi-elliptical trench + Vetiveria zizanioides + Stylosanthes scabra on three-year old cashew plantations were assessed on lateritic soil of Konkan region in Goa State. The study revealed that the bioengineering measures tried in cashew plantation on hill slope had a significant effect in reducing annual runoff, soil loss and nutrients losses. Bioengineering measures reduced runoff by 5 to 12.8% as compared to no-conservation measure. Out of all the bioengineering measures, continuous contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides, followed by staggered contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides reduced runoff by 12.8 and 10.3%, respectively. Continuous contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabram Vetiveria zizanioides and staggered contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides reduced soil loss by 11 and 8 t.ha–1.yr-1 in cashew field, respectively. Minimum major nutrients losses were monitored in the treatment of continuous contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides, followed by staggered contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides, while the maximum nutrient losses was recorded in control plot. The highest soil and water conservation efficiency was observed in continuous contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides (47.4%), followed by staggered contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides (35.9%) and it was lowest (18.3%) in half-moon terraces with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides. It was concluded that the continuous contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides as vegetative barrier was most efficient as compared to all other treatments for runoff, soil loss and nutrient loss reduction. Staggered contour trenches with Stylosanthes scabra and Vetiveria zizanioides was the alternative measure for reducing runoff and soil and nutrient losses in cashew land use.

Population status of Pan troglodytes verus in Lagoas de Cufada Natural Park, Guinea-Bissau.

The western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus, has been classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1988. Intensive agriculture, commercial plantations, logging, and mining have eliminated or degraded the habitats suitable for P. t. verus over a large part of its range. In this study we assessed the effect of land-use change on the population size and density of chimpanzees at Lagoas de Cufada Natural Park (LCNP), Guinea-Bissau. We further explored chimpanzee distribution in relation to landscape-level proxies of human disturbance. Nest count and distance-sampling methods were employed along 11 systematically placed linear transects in 2010 and 2011. Estimated nest decay rate was 293.9 days (%CV = 58.8). Based on this estimate of decay time and using the Standing-Crop Nest Count Method, we obtained a habitat-weighted average chimpanzee density estimate for 2011 of 0.22 nest building chimpanzees/km2 (95% CI 0.08–0.62), corresponding to 137 (95% CI 51.0–390.0) chimpanzees for LCNP. Human disturbance had a negative influence on chimpanzee distribution as nests were built farther away from human settlements, roads, and rivers than if they were randomly distributed, coinciding with the distribution of the remaining patches of dense canopy forest. We conclude that the continuous disappearance of suitable habitat (e.g. the replacement of LCNP's dense forests by monocultures of cashew plantations) may be compromising the future of one of the most threatened Guinean coastal chimpanzee populations. We discuss strategies to ensure long-term conservation in this important refuge for this chimpanzee subspecies at its westernmost margin of geographic distribution.

Micronutrient Assessment of Cocoa, Kola, Cashew and Coffee Plantations for Sustainable Production at Uhonmora, Edo State, Nigeria

The micronutrient status of the soils and leaf of cocoa, kola, cashew and coffee plantations to study the soil-plant micronutrient content relationship in the plantation soils for proper management towards optimum production of the crops was investigated at Uhonmora, Edo State, Nigeria. Soil and leaf samples were collected from these plantations and analyzed according to standard laboratory procedures. The soil samples were analyzed for the micronutrients (Cu, Mn, Zn and Fe) and in addition pH, organic carbon, sand, silt and clay contents, while the leaves were analyzed for only the micronutrient contents. Results indicated that the soils were sandy loam, acidic, low in organic carbon, deficient in Cu and Mn but very high in Fe and Zn contents. This probably resulted in nutrient imbalance in the soils and the deficiency of the nutrients in the crops. The plantations therefore require application of organic manures and micronutrient fertilizers to rectify the inadequate soil organic matter and to supply sufficient amount of Cu and Mn in the soils, to obtain quality fruit yield at optimum level from the plantations.Keywords: Cashew, cocoa, coffee, kola, micronutrients, sustainable production [How to Cite: Ogeh JS and RR Ipinmoroti. 2013. Micronutrient Assessment of Cocoa, Kola, Cashew and Coffee Plantations for Sustainable Production at Uhonmora, Edo State, Nigeria. J Trop Soils 18 (2): 93-97. Doi: 10.5400/jts.2013.18.2.93] [Permalink/DOI: www.dx.doi.org/10.5400/jts.2013.18.2.93] REFERENCESAdebiyi S, EO Uwagbue, EA Agbongiarhuoyi, I Ndagi and EO Aigbekaen. 2011. Assessment of agronomic practices among kola farmers in Osun State, Nigeria. World J Agric Sci 7: 400-403.Afolabi CA and NE Egbe. 1984. Yield response of kola to N, P and K fertilizer application: A case study of preliminary trial. Cafe Cacao The 28: 13-16. AOAC [Association of Official Analytical Chemists]. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th Edition. Washington DC: 774-784.Ayanlaja SA. 1983. Rehabilitation of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Nigeria: Major problem and possible solution. Plant Soil 73: 403-409.CBN [Central Bank of Nigeria]. 2010. Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the year. Abuja, Nigeria. 182 p.Chude VO and GO Obigbesan. 1983. Safe and toxic application rates of boron for cocoa seedlings. Plant Soil 74: 145-147.Egbe NE, EA Ayodele and CR Obatolu. 1989. Soils and nutrition of cocoa, coffee, kola cashew and tea. Prog Tree Crop Res 2: 28-38.Falade JA. 1978. Cashew growing soil in Nigeria. East Afr Agric J 43: 100-105. FAO [Food and Agriculture Organization]. 2010. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx? PageID=567#ancor. Accessed on 21 January 2010.Ibiremo OS and O Fagbola. 2008. Effect of phosphorus fertilizer and arbuscular mycorhizal fungi inoculation on the growth of cashew seedlings in two soils in Nigeria. Nigerian J Soil Sci 18: 138-146.Ipinmoroti RR, OSO Akanbi, MA Daniel, LA Adebowale, GA Adewoye, EA Makinde and CO Kayode. 2011. Potentials of NPK and organic fertilizers on growth performance of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) seedlings on degraded typic alfisol soils in Ibadan, Nigeria. J Agric Sci Tech 1: 876-881.Ipinmoroti RR, P Aikpokpodion and OSO Akanbi. 2009. Nutritional assessment of cocoa plots for soil fertility management on some cocoa farms in Nigeria. Proceedings of 16th International Cocoa Research Conference Held at Grand Hyatt Hotel, Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia, pp 1481-1485.Iremiren GO and AM Ekhomun. 2005. Effects of N fertilizer rates on the performance of maize-okra mixture in an acid sand soil of the Nigerian forest zone. Nigerian J Appl Sci 23: 11-14. McKenzie RH. 2001. Micronutrient requirements of crops. Alberta Agriculture and Rural development http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex713. Acessed on 21 July 2011.Nelson DW and LE Sommers. 1982. Organic carbon and soil extracts In: D L Sparks (ed). Methods of soil Analysis. Part 2- Chemical and microbiological properties. Agronomy Monograph No.9, 2nd Edition. American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, USA, pp. 539-579.Ogunlade MO, OS Ibiremo, RR Ipinmoroti, CI Iloyanomon and PE Aikpokpodion. 2011. Determination of phosphorus and potassium fixation capacities and fertilizer fctors in soils of three cocoa growing areas of Nigeria. J Soil Nat 5: 11-16.Ogunmoyela OA and CR Obatolu. 1984. Nutrient studies and fertilizer requirements of Nigeria tea. Cafe Cacao The 28: 179-184.Ogunwale JA, JO Olaniyan and MO Aduloju. 2002. Morphological, physico-chemical and clay mineralogical properties of soils overlaying basement complex rocks in Ilorin East, Nigeria. Moor J Agric Res 3: 147-154.Ojeniyi SO. 1980. Nutrient studies of NPK treated coffee plots. Plant Soil 56: 175-179.Omotoso TI. 1974. The effect of fertilizer and irrigation on the leaf macronutrient composition of Coffea canephora during a year. Turrialba 24: 315-318.Opeke LK. 1987. Tropical tree crops. Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan, Nigeria, p 247.Wood GAR and RA Lass. 1985. Cocoa, 4th ed. London: Longman, pp. 620-632.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Soils under Contrasting Land Use Systems in Derived Savannah Agro-Ecological Zone of South-eastern Nigeria

The evaluation of the impact of six agricultural land use systems on the fragile and impoverished soils of derived savannah agro-ecological zone in south-eastern Nigeria was carried out with the aim of understanding the response of the soil to different management practices over time. Soil physical and chemical properties were used to evaluate the influence of Forestland, Grassland, Cashew Plantation, Rangeland, Continuously Cultivated Land within Homestead and Continuously Cultivated Land outside Homestead on the soil fertility status. The soil chemical properties studied were soil pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available P, exchangeable base (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+) and exchangeable acidity (H+ and Al3+). The physical properties were aggregate stability, mean weight diameter, water dispersible clay and clay flocculation index. Two fractions of soil particles size (0.25mm and 2mm) were used to assess the influence of land use and particle size interaction on soil organic carbon, total nitrogen (TN) and available P. Organic carbon (OC) varied significantly (P &lt; 0.05) with land use, but not with particle size, while TN was not influenced by both the land use and particle size. The available phosphorus (Av. P) varied significantly (P &lt; 0.05) with only the particle size. Ranking the land use systems based on soil chemical properties other than pH and exchangeable acidity, the fertility status of the soils followed the order; Rangeland &gt; Grassland &gt; Forestland &gt; Continuously Cultivated Plots within Homestead &gt; Cashew Plantation &gt; Continuously Cultivated Plots outside Homestead. There was no significant interaction between land use system and soil particle size fractions. Thus, OC, TN, and available P at the various land use systems were independent of the soil particle size fractions. Based on the soil physical properties, land use systems were rated as follows; Cashew Plantation &gt; Grassland &gt; Continuously Cultivated Plots outside Homestead &gt; Forestland &gt; Rangeland &gt; Continuously Cultivated Plots within Homestead. The soil fertility seemed to be better enhanced by grassland, rangeland and forestland than the other land use systems.Keyword: Land use systems; Aggregate stability; derived savannah; particle sizeNigerian Journal of Technological Research

Keanekaragaman laba-laba dan potensinya sebagai musuh alami hama tanaman jambu mete

Sanurus sp., Acrocercops sp. and Helopeltis sp. are important pests of cashews in Nusa Tenggara Barat. Pesticide usage to control these pests has so far not been successful, and thus the usage of natural enemy as an alternative control methods should be developed. Spider represents one of the natural enemies which are found in cashew plantation. The aims of the research is to study spider population and its predatory ability in cashew plantation. The study has been conducted in an area of cashew plantation at Dusun Jugil, Desa Sambik Bangkol, Lombok Utara. Spider predation was directly observed for 78 days, starting from May to August 2009. Edgar formula was used to measure spider predation per day. The study found 19 species of spider consisting from eight families. The abundance of Neoscona theisi is higher than Tetragnatha maxillosa, but the proportion of N. theisi with prey is less than T. maxillosa. This phenomenon indicates that spider’s abundance, does not directly show its potential as natural enemy in that habitat. N. nautica consumed at least 3.84 preys per day, but not all of its prey represents the pest of cashew. N. theisi consumed 1.67 preys per day and all of its prey represents pests of cashew. This study show that the amount of prey which can be consumed by spider per day does not directly show the potential of spiders as natural enemey of cashew pest.

Water use pattern and canopy processes of cashew trees during a drying period in West Africagoo

Water flux in a young, 4-year old, cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) plantation was studied over a dry season, from November 2001 to March 2002, in the forest-savannah transition zone of Ghana, West Africa. The temperature-difference method was used over this five-month period to quantify the diurnal and day-to-day whole-tree sap flow (Qt) and hence the canopy scale transpiration (Ec). Measured allometric data were used to convert sap flow to canopy transpiration, while the observed meteorological variables were used to derive canopy scale conductance (gc) by inverting the Penman-Monteith equation. Sap flow varied between 9 and 22 kg day -1 and was on average Qt = 14 kg day -1 for the entire period. Tree sap flow was closely dependent on solar radiation and less dependent on air vapour deficit. Using no time shift, sap flow was fitted to a simple equation that showed its parabolic response to global radiation. The estimated average diurnal pattern of gc ranged from 0.1 to 2.2 mm s -1 while aerodynamic conductance (ga) ranged from 21.9 to 49.3 mm s -1 . This result is expected to be of value in the analysis of atmospheric control of canopy transpiration in orchards in West Africa.

EFIKASI PESTISIDA NABATI DARI TANAMAN SELA JAMBU METE DAN JAMUR ENTOMOPATOGEN SYNNEMATIUM SP. UNTUK MENGENDALIKAN WERENG PUCUK METE (SANURUS INDECORA)

Cashew plant is the one of export commodity that has high economic value compared to the other commodities. Sanurus indecora is one of major pest in cashew, causing decreased quality and quantity of products. The aims of this experiments were to the develop integrated pest management of S. indecora, by: (a) utilization and enviroment manipulation of cashew plantation using intercropping plants to control S. indicora, (b) utilization of natural enemies, specially Synnematium sp., to control S. indecora. The experiment consisted of : (1) the effect of intercropping plant extracts as botanical pesticide on S. indecora mortality at laboratory, (2) the effect of medium substances on Synnematium sp. growth, as well as the effect of concentration of Synnematium sp. suspension on S. indecora mortality at laboratory. Botanical pesticides that were used in this experiment was made from extraction of intercropping plants: extraction of sesame seed, of cassava leaves and pineapple fruit. All experiments were arranged in complete randomized design. The results showed that 0.5 mg/10 mL water of sesame seed extract, 0.1 mg/10 mL water of cassava leaves extract and 2.0 mg/10 mL pineapple fruit extract concentrations resulted average 76.67%, 66.67%, and 63.33% S. indecora mortalities at 24 hours after application, respectively. The second experiment showed that the growth medium containing rice straw resulted the best growth of Synnematium sp. colonies than the other treatments and 0.1 g/mL water of Synnematium sp. mycelium resulted the high mortality (57,5%) at 5 days after application.

Monitoring of biophysical parameters of cashew plants in Cambodia using ALOS/PALSAR data

An accurate estimation of a plant's age is required for the prediction of yield and management practices. This study demonstrates the relationship between backscattering properties (σ°) of Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) dual polarimetric data with cashew plants' biophysical parameters (height, age, crown diameter, diameter at breast height, basal area, tree density, and biomass) in Cambodia. PALSAR σ° has shown a positive correlation with the biophysical parameters of cashew plants. The value of σ° increases with the age of cashew plants. At a young stage, the cashew plants show a higher rate of an increase in σ° compared to that at the mature stage. The σ° horizontal polarization transmitted and vertical received (HV) shows higher sensitivity to the plant's growth than σ° horizontal polarization transmitted and received (HH). High backscattering and low variations were observed at mature stage (8-12 years) of cashew plantation. Saturation in backscattering has shown from the age of about 13 years. The validation results indicate strong coefficient of determination (R(2) = 0.86 and 0.88) for PALSAR-predicted age and biomass of cashew plants with root mean square error = 1.8 years and 16.3 t/ha for age and biomass, respectively. The correlations of σ° (HH) with biophysical parameters observed in the dry season were better than those of the rainy season because soil moisture interferes with backscattering in the rainy season. Biomass accumulation rate of cashew plants has been predicted that would be useful for selection of plants species to enhance carbon sequestration. This study provides an insight to use PALSAR for the monitoring of growth stages of plants at the regional level.

An Epidemiological Study on the Health Effects of Endosulfan Spraying on Cashew Plantations in Kasaragod District, Kerala, India

An Epidemiological Study on the Health Effects of Endosulfan Spraying on Cashew Plantations in Kasaragod District, Kerala, India

Preliminary studies on the damage symptoms and the spatial distribution of an emerging insect pest, Mecocorynus sp. (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) on cashew in Ghana

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale Linn.) has become a very important non-traditional tree crop in Ghana. The crop is, however, infested by numerous insect pests at different stages of its growth. Knowledge of the insect complexity associated with the tree is essential for developing pest control strategies for the crop. Following a reported outbreak of an unknown pest by officials of Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) and farmers in March 2009 in some cashew plantations in the Brong-Ahafo Region, an investigation was initiated to collect and identify the insect species involved and assess the extent of the damage caused by the insect. The cashew bark borer, Mecocorynus sp. (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) was identified and found to be responsible for the damage and could kill the attacked trees within weeks after infestation. Observations at Jaman south and Jaman north of death of mature trees within few weeks of infestation were indications of emergence of new pest of cashew in Ghana. Studies on the distribution and damage characteristics of the pest was conducted from April 2009 to December 2010 in 41 major cashew growing areas within five districts of the Brong-Ahafo Region. In the Jaman South District, symptoms of infestation of the insect were found on 14.2% of the tree population and the death rate of tree population was 2.2%.The incidence of the pest in the Jaman north was also high, with death rate of 2.8% and infestation rate of 13.6%. In the Tain district death rate was 0.6%; infestation was observed only at Banda-Biema, Nsawkaw, Mendji, Donkokrom and Brodi. This paper reports the status of a new emerging pest of cashew in Ghana, which needs an urgent attention. Key words: Damage symptoms, spatial distribution, Mecocorynus sp., cashew, Ghana.

Enhanced biosurfactant production through cloning of three genes and role of esterase in biosurfactant release

BackgroundBiosurfactants have been reported to utilize a number of immiscible substrates and thereby facilitate the biodegradation of panoply of polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Olive oil is one such carbon source which has been explored by many researchers. However, studying the concomitant production of biosurfactant and esterase enzyme in the presence of olive oil in the Bacillus species and its recombinants is a relatively novel approach.ResultsBacillus species isolated from endosulfan sprayed cashew plantation soil was cultivated on a number of hydrophobic substrates. Olive oil was found to be the best inducer of biosurfactant activity. The protein associated with the release of the biosurfactant was found to be an esterase. There was a twofold increase in the biosurfactant and esterase activities after the successful cloning of the biosurfactant genes from Bacillus subtilis SK320 into E.coli. Multiple sequence alignment showed regions of similarity and conserved sequences between biosurfactant and esterase genes, further confirming the symbiotic correlation between the two. Biosurfactants produced by Bacillus subtilis SK320 and recombinant strains BioS a, BioS b, BioS c were found to be effective emulsifiers, reducing the surface tension of water from 72 dynes/cm to as low as 30.7 dynes/cm.ConclusionThe attributes of enhanced biosurfactant and esterase production by hyper-producing recombinant strains have many utilities from industrial viewpoint. This study for the first time has shown a possible association between biosurfactant production and esterase activity in any Bacillus species. Biosurfactant-esterase complex has been found to have powerful emulsification properties, which shows promising bioremediation, hydrocarbon biodegradation and pharmaceutical applications.

Variation of interception loss with different plant species at the University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Interception studies of six plants groups were carried out at the campus of University of Agriculture, Abeokuta in Nigeria, using three different sample sites. These sites were the Arborea plantation, cashew plantation and College of Environmental Resources Management premises of the University. The field work was carried out between 15 th June and 28 th September, 2009. Of the 22 rainfall events recorded for each plant species, at least 13 produced measurable through fall and stem flow and a maximum of 18 measurable records. Through fall showed a very strong linear correlation against daily rainfall for different plant species. The r 2 values varied between 0.841 (Teak) to 0.963 (Gmelina). This trend also followed for stem flow since without rainfall no stem flow. This was not the case for interception loss which showed only a moderate correlation against rainfall amount for each plant species with r 2 value ranging from 0.058 (Teak) to 0.716 (Neem). This implied an inverse relationship between interception rate and rainfall amount. Interception ratio for coniferous plants was more than deciduous plants, both having average values of 32.01 and 26.54% respectively when interception loss was considered per storm or event. But when considered at the end of observation, deciduous plants had more interception ratio than the coniferous plants with average interception values of 26.54 and 32.01% respectively. At the end of the observation, the interception loss for each plant, Pinus leuceana sp, cashew, Neem, Gmelina and Teak were 18.77, 21.04, 31.96, 26.16, 11.1 and 38.05% respectively. The values changed when considering average interception loss per storm and the values for the plants species as arranged above were 28.60, 30.18, 31.96, 37.26, 17.78 and 29.89% respectively. This showed that interception loss varied from one plant species to another. With these, one will know which can best be used for conservation purpose. Key words: Through fall, stem flow, canopy.

Habitat suitability, threats and conservation strategies of Hump-nosed Pit Viper Hypnale hypnale Merrem (Reptilia: Viperidae) found in Western Ghats, Goa, India

Recent studies indicate that most species are best conserved in their natural community, which results in niche conservation. Depletion of any species is an irreversible change. In the present study the habitat ecology, threats and conservation strategies for the Hump-nosed Pit Viper Hypnale hypnale are suggested. The present study was undertaken in some protected areas (PAs) of Goa and the cashew plantations adjoining these PAs. H. hypnale prefers cool and moist places; most of the females of this species are found to spend the period from post monsoon to late summer in the cashew plantations adjoining and within the PAs, making them more susceptible to anthropogenic threats. We conclude that this pattern of seasonal changes in habitat use is mostly a consequence of niche conservation. However, this preference for a particular micro-habitat emphasizes the importance for the conservation of this snake population and although the most suitable habitat in the Western Ghats, for this species is included in the protected areas, specific guidelines are needed to assess conservation needs.

Distribution and abundance of pit vipers (Reptilia: Viperidae) along the Western Ghats of Goa, India

The distribution and abundance of pit vipers in the Western Ghats namely Trimeresurus gramineus (Bamboo Pit Viper), T. malabaricus (Malabar Pit Viper) and Hypnale hypnale (Hump-nosed Pit Viper) was investigated in five wildlife sanctuaries of Goa from 2005 to 2009. Seasonal day-night data was collected based on band transect methods. All the pit viper species showed specific habitat preferences and their abundance changed with season. They were most abundant during monsoon. H. hypnale extended its range to the adjoining cashew plantations during the post monsoon and winter.

Impact of climatic factors on infestation of leaf eating caterpillar (Mentrysia hyrtica) of cashew in Chhattisgarh

A survey was conducted in randomly selected trees in adult cashew plantation of district Jagdalpur (C. G.) during 2003-04, 2004-05 and 2005-06. The infestation of leaf caterpillar was recorded and correlated with the corresponding weather parameters. The seasonal infestation of leaf eating caterpillar on cashew was recorded throughout the year. The infestation of this insect was found to very from year to year. The climatic factors minimum temperature, relative humidity (evening) and rainfall positively influenced the variation in leaf caterpillar damages. The multiple regression analysis indicated that maximum temperature negatively contributed 27% towards incidence of leaf caterpillar damages.

Nitrogen use for high productivity and sustainability in cashew

Interest in cashew production in Australia has been stimulated by domestic and export market opportunities and suitability of large areas of tropical Australia. Economic models indicate that cashew production is profitable at 2.8 t ha −1 nut-in-shell (NIS). Balanced plant nutrition is essential to achieve economic yields in Australia, with nitrogen (N) of particular importance because of its capacity to modify growth, affect nut yield and cause environmental degradation through soil acidification and off-site contamination. The study on a commercial cashew plantation at Dimbulah, Australia, investigated the effect of N rate and timing on cashew growth, nut production, N leaching and soil chemical properties over five growth cycles (1995–1999). Nitrogen was applied during the main periods of vegetative (December–April) and reproductive (June–October) growth. Commercial NIS yields (up to 4.4 t ha −1 from individual trees) that exceeded the economic threshold of 2.8 t ha −1 were achieved. The yield response was mainly determined by canopy size as mean nut weight, panicle density and nuts per panicle were largely unaffected by N treatments. Nitrogen application confined to the main period of vegetative growth (December–April) produced a seasonal growth pattern that corresponded most consistently with highest NIS yield. This N timing also reduced late season flowering and undesirable post-November nut drop. Higher yields were not produced at N rates greater than 17 g m −2 of canopy surface area (equating to 210 kg N ha −1 for mature size trees). High yields were attained when N concentrations in Mveg leaves in May–June were about 2%, but this assessment occurs at a time when it is not feasible to correct N deficiency. The Mflor leaf of the preceding November, used in conjunction with the Mveg leaf, was proposed as a diagnostic tool to guide N rate decisions. Leaching of nitrate-N and acidification of the soil profile was recorded to 0.9 m. This is an environmental and sustainability hazard, and demonstrates that improved methods of N management are required.

Spatial structures of soil organic carbon in tropical forests—A case study of Southeastern Tanzania

Abstract Southeastern Tanzania serves as a typical example of soil degradation and soil organic carbon (SOC) losses on the African continent. Although sequestration of SOC through aforestation or reforestation proved favorable, these measures are restricted by the ability to produce rapid, cost-effective and precise sampling schemes. The aim of this study is to contribute to a better knowledge of the spatial distribution of soil C in tropical natural and plantation forest. This paper presents sampling strategies for estimating mean SOC values as well as for SOC mapping, based on different methods for SOC determination and on different precision levels. To do so we conducted a carbon variability study in five common forest types of Southeastern Tanzania (coastal dry forest, Miombo woodland, teak plantation, pine plantation and cashew plantation) using conventional statistical methods, as well as geostatistics. In the 5 forest types of this study, SOC stocks in the upper 5 cm ranges between 5 (in the cashew plantation) and 13 (in the coastal forest) t ha− 1. The optimal sampling distance for measuring mean SOC stocks varies between 36 m (in the patchy miombo woodland) and 422 m (in the homogenized cashew plantation). Sample sizes fluctuate between 6 and 72 (1 t ha− 1 precision) for respectively cashew plantation and coastal forest. A rectangular grid with a sample interval of 25 m can be used for SOC mapping with a point kriging estimation error of 3.0 t ha− 1 in the coastal forest, 2.6 t ha− 1 in miombo woodland, 2.2 t ha− 1 in the teak plantation and 1.1 t ha− 1 in the cashew plantation. Since the pine plantation has no spatial structure; samples can be arranged randomly and its best soil map has an average C content attributed over the whole field. Refining the sampling strategy with a new spatial variability study in other forest types can be based on a regular grid with sampling distances of half the range identified in this study. This paper proves that the optimal sampling scheme varies strongly as a result of the different spatial behavior of SOC in forests and depends on the required precision and research question. Only when the right strategy is followed, high standards of precision can be met without economic loss or risk of statistical misinterpretation.

Integrated production and protection practices of cashew (Anacardium occidentale ) in Nigeria

th century. Then, it was mainly used in afforestation schemes for the control of erosion in the former Eastern Nigeria. However, commercial cashew plantations started in Nigeria in the early 1950s with the establishment of first commercial plantations at Oghe, Oji and Mbala by the defunct Eastern Nigeria Development Corporation (ENDC) and Iwo, Eruwa and Upper Ogun by the defunct Western Nigeria Development Corporation (WNDC). From these locations, the planting of the crop spread to other parts of Nigeria particularly the Central and Northern States of Nigeria. Cashew is an emerging commodity crop whose cultivation cuts across the seven agro-ecologies in Nigeria. In each of the 27 cashew producing states in Nigeria, the numerical strength of the farmers is astronomically increasing, while the crop’s hectarage is correspondingly on the increase. Cashew was generally believed to be almost free from serious pest problems, until recently when large plantations were established, resulting in the discovery of many insect pest and diseases attacking different parts of the plant. This therefore, necessitated a comprehensive evaluation of cashew production and protection packages so as to ensure sustained interests in the crop’s cultivation and to encourage the prospecting cashew farmers.