Cashew Nut Shell Oil Research Articles

Performance and Emission Evaluation of a Diesel Engine Fuelled with Cashew Nut Shell Oil Blends

This paper presents the properties and application of cashew nut shell oil as blend component for diesel in compression ignition engine. Experimental tests were carried out in a single cylinder, four stroke, direct injection, compression ignition engine fueled with cashew nut shell oil blends. During the experiments, the performance and emission characteristics of the diesel engine was analyzed and compared with the neat diesel fuel performance.

Incorporation of Natural Renewable Components and Waste Byproducts to Benzoxazine Based High Performance Materials

This review highlights very recent attempts to incorporate natural renewable resources in benzoxazine resin synthesis and the properties of polybenzoxazines derived from them. Strong environmental incentives to reduce consumption of petroleum and its derivatives have also influenced the choice of raw materials for benzoxazine synthesis among many other synthetic polymer precursors. It will be seen that properties of naturally derived polybenzoxazines offer comparable physical and mechanical properties, or unique properties derived from multifunctionality of natural raw materials, often derived from multi-functionality of the natural raw materials. Benzoxazine chemistry’s versatile molecular design flexibility allows incorporation of naturally occurring phenolics, primary amines and hydroxyl compounds, such as cashew nut shell oil, urushiol, terepene, levulinic acid, and cellulose. Use of glycerol as biodiesel production waste from primary waste, such as used cooking oil and fat, as well as naturally occurring amine compound in a biomimetic manner are also discussed.

Bioadhesives for Wood and Fibres

Recent developments and trends in the field of eco-friendly bio-based adhesives are reviewed. The more recent developments in tannin adhesives without the use of aldehyde-yielding compounds under the conditions of processing, or even without the use of hardeners are described. Lignin adhesives are discussed next as well as protein adhesives such as soy protein adhesives. Some trends in carbohydrate adhesives, as modifiers of existing adhesives, by forming degradation compounds or even in the form of liquified wood are addressed. Unsaturated oil adhesives based on epoxidized unsaturated vegetable oils are also described as well as an example of a different approach using a modified cashew nut shell oil to yield an adhesive by self-condensation of the material.

Performance, emission and combustion improvements in a direct injection diesel engine using cashew nut shell oil as fuel with camphor oil blending

The usage of neat cashew nut shell oil (CSNO) as a fuel in direct injection diesel engine suffers from the problems of incomplete combustion and low brake thermal efficiency due to high viscosity. To overcome this problem, the CSNO was blended with camphor oil (CMPRO) which is less viscous and burns readily, in various proportions by volume. These blends were tested in a single cylinder 1500 rpm, 5.2 kW, direct injection diesel engine fitted with eddy current dynamometer. The performance, emission and combustion characteristics were studied at various loads on the engine at a constant speed of 1500 rpm and compared with neat CSNO and diesel fuel operations. Among the blends 30% camphor oil blend with CSNO (CMPRO 30), shows good performance on par with diesel fuel operation with respect to brake thermal efficiency and heat release rate at full load. The brake thermal efficiency of CMPRO 30 is 29.1% compared to base diesel engine brake thermal efficiency of 30.14%. The CMPRO 30 emits 1040 ppm of NO, while diesel emits 1068 ppm. The neat CSNO emits 983 ppm of NO. The smoke emissions are 4.22, 3.91, and 3.64 Bosch Smoke Unit for CSNO, CMPRO 30 and diesel, respectively.

1,3‐bis(benzoxazine) from cashew nut shell oil and diaminodiphenyl methane and its composites with wood flour

AbstractCashew nut oil‐based benzoxazine monomer has been synthesized applying solvent‐less method through the Mannich reaction of cashew nut shell oil as phenol, amine, and formaldehyde. A difunctional 1,3‐benzoxazine is synthesized using diaminodiphenyl methane as the amine component. 1H and 13C‐nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy are used to characterize the structure of the monomers. Wood flour is used to prepare composites, making both reinforcement and matrix resin the materials derived from renewable resources. Observation of catalytic effects on DSC exothermic temperature and crosslink density by the added wood flour is discussed. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013

Horseradish Peroxidase Catalyzed Synthesis of Polycardanol Microcapsules

Polymers synthesized from naturally derived monomers are valuable since they decrease the reliance on petroleum based feed stocks. Cashew nut shell oil (CNSL) is a side-product from processing of edible Cashew nuts of Annacardium occidentale. One of the major components of CNSL is cardanol, which is a phenol derivative having an unsaturated pentadecyl substituent in the ‘meta’ position with varying amount of unsaturation (no double bonds to three double bonds). The substituent in the meta position can also be hydrogenated to yield completely saturated hydrogenated cardanol. Cardanol can be utilized to stabilize the dispersions of oil in water and vice versa since it displays amphiphilic behavior owing to the phenolic head and the C15 aliphatic tail. Here we report the horseradish peroxidase (HRP) catalyzed polymerization of cardanol at oil water interface to obtain polycardanol microcapsules. A synthetic analogue of hydrogenated cardanol, 3-pentadecylphenol (3PDP), was also oxidatively polymerized at the oil-water interface to obtain Poly(3-pentadecylphenol) microcapsules.

Bio-resins from cashew nutshell oil

Enrico Ferri, CEO of Composite Technical Services (CTS), explains why cashew nutshell oil-derived bio-resins can help composites increase their green attributes while also enhancing their performance.

Influence of some vegetable oils on the photocrosslinking of coatings based on an o-cresol novolac epoxy resin and a bis-cycloaliphatic diepoxide

The influence of cashew nut shell oil (CNO), epoxidized soybean oil (ESO), castor oil (CO), and dioctyl phtalate (DOP) on the photocrosslinking kinetics of UV curable mixtures containing an o-cresol novolac epoxy resin (CNE), a bis-cycloaliphatic diepoxide monomer (BCDE), and a triarylsulfonium salt (TAS) as a cationic photoinitiator has been studied. The formulation with a weight ratio CNE/BCDE/TAS of 60/40/5 was found to have the highest cure rate and the greatest final conversion of epoxy groups upon UV exposure. The presence of an unsaturated oil or of DOP in the UV curable formulation, at a content ranging from 0.07 to 0.79 mol/kg, was shown to increase the initial polymerization rate of the epoxy groups from 12 up to 31 mol/kg s, and the epoxy conversion after 18 s UV exposure from 80 up to 95%. It was found that the UV cured coatings containing CNO or DOP at concentrations between 0.3 and 0.6 mol/kg and ESO at concentrations between 0.12 and 0.19 mol/kg exhibit the best performance. These results were explained by a number of competitive factors, mainly the effects of the chemical structure and content of the oils and of DOP on the polarity, viscosity, compatibility, and internal filter effect of the UV curable resins, as well as by the characteristics of the tridimensional polymer networks formed upon UV exposure. The materials produced under the optimal conditions determined in this study can be used as high performance decorative and protective coatings and also as adhesives in different sectors of applications.

Eco-friendly utilization of parabolic concentrating solar cooker for extraction of cashew nut shell oil and household cooking

India is the largest producer, processor, exporter, and second largest consumer of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) in the world. India processed about 11,80,000 million tonnes of raw cashew seeds. The large quantity of cashew shell is unutilized due to the expensive method of oil extraction and liberation of acidic flumes during direct combustion. The parabolic concentrating solar cooker (sk-14) was evaluated for cooking and generation of heat for cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extraction. The CNSL extractor was developed and evaluated for thermal profile and CNSL recovery. The no-load temperature of 320 °C was reached inside the extractor. The average oil recovery was reported to be 55–70%. The physical properties (specific gravity, viscosity, proximate analysis, pH, iodine value, and calorific value) of solar-heated untreated oil was evaluated and compared with standard properties as per IS840-1964. The de-oiled cashew shell waste was evaluated for fuel properties using the ASTM D-3173-3175 method.

Synthesis and Physicochemical Characterization of Anionic Surfactants Derived from Cashew Nut Shell Oil

AbstractCarboxylate derivatives of cardanol and anacardic acids, which are the main phenolic components of cashew nut shell oil were prepared and tested as anionic surfactants. They lower the surface tension, exhibit a critical micelle concentration, and produce microemulsions in mixtures with dodecyl sulfate. The values of their characteristic parameters in the hydrophilic–lipophilic deviation scale attained by the unidimensional formulation scan method typify them as hydrophilic surfactants.

Study of epoxidized-cardanol containing cationic UV curable materials

Cationic photopolymerization, thermal and mechanical properties of thin film materials containing bio-renewable cashew nutshell oil derivative – epoxidized-cardanol (ECD) were investigated. Higher and more consistent monomer conversion as a function of relative humidity was found for thin film materials containing 10wt.% ECD and 5wt.% hydroxy-functional reactive diluents during cationic photopolymerization. In addition, ECD imparted balanced physiochemical properties to the cationic UV curable materials. ECD showed great potential to be used as a reactive ingredient in cationic UV curable materials.

Molecular identification and anticancer activity of alkylphenol from cashew nut shell oil (Anacardium occidentale) grown In Timor Island

Isolation of anacardic acid and cardanol from cashew nut shell liquid and their cytotoxic activity to on ward HeLa cancer cell line has been done. The objective of this research is to isolate and identify anacardic acid and cardanol from CNSL along with their cytototoxic activity towards HeLa cancer cell lines. Anacardic acid was isolated as calcium anacardate. Hydrolisis of this acid with acid chloride yields anacardic acid . Liquor ammonia was added to the acid-free CNSL and extracted with hexane/ethyl acetate (98:2) to isolate cardanol and with ethyl acetate/hexane (80:20) to separate cardol. Cardanol was obtained as the main chemical component of CNSL derived from Kupang district. Anacardic acid and cardanol was analyzed using IR and GC-MS. Anticancer activity of chemical components of CNSL against HeLa cancer cell lines were studied using MTT. Cytotoxic activity test showed that CNSL, anacardic acid and cardanol can be developed as anticancer agent. Key words : CNSL, anacardic acid, cardanol, anticancer.

Determination of Wetting Behavior, Spread Activation Energy, and Quench Severity of Bioquenchants

An investigation was conducted to study the suitability of vegetable oils such as sunflower, coconut, groundnut, castor, cashewnut shell (CNS), and palm oils as quench media (bioquenchants) for industrial heat treatment by assessing their wetting behavior and severity of quenching. The relaxation of contact angle was sharp during the initial stages, and it became gradual as the system approached equilibrium. The equilibrium contact angle decreased with increase in the temperature of the substrate and decrease in the viscosity of the quench medium. A comparison of the relaxation of the contact angle at various temperatures indicated the significant difference in spreading of oils having varying viscosity. The spread activation energy was determined using the Arrhenius type of equation. Oils with higher viscosity resulted in lower cooling rates. The quench severity of various oil media was determined by estimating heat-transfer coefficients using the lumped capacitance method. Activation energy for spreading determined using the wetting behavior of oils at various temperatures was in good agreement with the severity of quenching assessed by cooling curve analysis. A high quench severity is associated with oils having low spread activation energy.

Recent developments in eco-efficient bio-based adhesives for wood bonding: opportunities and issues

Recent developments and trends in the field of eco-efficient bio-based adhesives are reviewed. Eco-efficient means efficient with regard to both ecological and economical aspects. The recent developments in tannin adhesives without the use of any aldehyde-yielding compounds under the conditions of use, or even without the use of any hardeners, are described. Lignin adhesives are discussed next. Developments in protein adhesives, particularly the recent development in soy protein adhesives, are then addressed. Several new trends in carbohydrate adhesives, namely as modifiers of existing adhesives, by forming degradation compounds such as furanic compounds which can then be used as adhesives building blocks, and directly as wood adhesives, even in the form of liquified wood, are addressed. Unsaturated oil adhesives based on epoxidized unsaturated vegetable oils are also described, as well as an example of cashew nut shell oil modified by a new and inexpensive method of ozonolysis to yield an adhesive by self-condensation of the material. The review addresses last the new process of solid wood welding by mechanical friction without the use of any adhesive, in which the wood interfacial region itself is used as the binder.

Structural Characterization of a Modified Cashew Nut Shell Oil Coating Film for Industrial Use

A modified cashew nut shell oil coating film (CNSO-CF) was produced from the biomass of the oil obtained from the nut of Anacardium occidentale Linn. It dries more quickly than the conventional CNSO-CF. It is, therefore, more suitable to mass production on assembly lines. The modified CNSO-CF was analyzed by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), and its structures were compared with those of the conventional CNSO-CF and of urethane coating film. It was found that the modified CNSO-CF had a urethane coupling structure in addition to the same structures as the conventional CNSO-CF: the methylene cross-linked and autoxidative side chain-side chain C─C coupling structures. The addition of the urethane coupling structure accelerates the drying rate and expresses the most important functions for industrial use – extreme hardness and insolubility.

First Report of Plutella xylostella Linn. (Lepidoptera:Yponomeutidae) as a Pest of Stored Cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.) in Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria

Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae) is a hardy, drought and termite resistant tree. The nutshell contains a caustic oil known as cashew nut shell oil which is dark colored, viscous and poisonous with two phenolic compounds cardol (10%) and anacardic acid (90%) as the major active principles. The most important insect pests of cashew tree include, Pachnoda spp (cashew pseudo-apple scrapper), Helopeltis spp. (Capsid bugs) and Paranaleptes reticulata (stem girdler). Reports on insect pests of stored cashew nut seed are scanty. Diamond back (Plutella xylostella L. Yponomeutidae) a moth, normally a field pest of mainly curcurbits was observed to attack stored cashew nut seed in Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria.

Inhibitory effect of dietary anacardic acid supplementation on cecal lesion formation following chicken coccidial infection

AbstractTwo experiments were conducted to determine the effects on male chicken performance of anacardic acid and cashew nut shell oil as feed supplements during an experimental coccidial infection. Seven‐day‐old chicks wer e fed a corn‐soybean diet containing anacardic acid at 0, 0.4 or 0.8% (Experiment 1), or cashew nut shell oil at 0, 0.1, 0.2 or 0.4% (Experiment 2) for 10 days. On the third day of each experiment, half of the birds fed each diet were individually inoculated orally with 2 × 103 or 5 × 104 (Experiment 1) and 1 × 104 or 1 × 105 (Experiment 2) Eimeria tenella oocysts. In Experiment 1, body weight gain and cecal length decreased significantly according to the level of oocyst inoculation, while oocyst production per cecum (log value) and cecal lesion score significantly increased. Dietary anacardic acid supplementation had no effect on these parameters except for that of lesion score, which was improved (i.e. decreased) by anacardic acid supplementation of 0.8% at the inoculation level of 2 × 103 oocysts, and of 0.4 and 0.8% for the higher inoculation (5 × 104 oocysts). Results of Experiment 2 also showed that cashew nut shell oil affected neither cecal length nor oocyst production per cecum (log value) at either of the inoculation levels, but the lesion score was improved by cashew nut shell oil supplementation at 0.2 and 0.4% in the diet at the inoculation level of 1 × 104 oocysts and at 0.4% for the higher inoculation. The present study provides the first evidence of the reducing effects of anacardic acid and cashew nut shell oil on the severity of cecal lesions in chickens during an experimental coccidial infection.

Synthesis and Cosmetic Whitening Effect of Glycosides Derived from Anacardic Acids.

Anacardic acids, (6-[(8Z)-8-pentadecenyl] salicylic acid (1) and 6-[(8Z,11Z)-8,11,14-pentadecatrienyl] salicylic acid (2)) were isolated from the shell oil of Indonesian cashew nut and used to synthesize glycosides via glycosidation of the carboxyl group on the benzene ring. We examined these compounds for their inhibition of the enzyme tyrosinase, their superoxide scavenging activity and their inhibition of enzyme hyaluronidase. The glucosides derived from (1) and (2) were found to inhibit tyrosinase (using L-DOPA as a substrate) activity by more than 80%. The inhibitory rates exceeded that of arbutin, a compound that is used in commercial cosmetics. As the comparison, cardanols, (3-[(8Z)-8-pentadecenyl] phenol (3) and 3-[(8Z, 11Z)-8, 11, 14-pentadecatrienyl] phenol (4)) were isolated from the cashew nut shell oil and used to synthesize glycosides that we also examined for their inhibitory activity.

An ESCA study of the effectiveness of antiwear and extreme‐pressure additives based on substituted phosphorodithioate derivatives, and a comparison with ZDDP

AbstractAshless substituted dithiophosphoric acid derivatives (ADPs) are a new generation of multifunctional additives with promising antiwear (AW) and extreme‐pressure (EP) characteristics. Three such additives synthesised in the authors' laboratory have been evaluated for their AW and EP properties by standard four‐ball friction and wear tests. The friction‐reducing properties of these additives were compared with those of a commercial zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP). It was found that the phosphorodithioate compounds studied here possessed excellent AW/EP properties. Their AW characteristics were found to be comparable to those of ZDDP at low loads. However, at higher loads they show inferior AW characteristics in comparison to ZDDP. Nevertheless, ADP derived from cashew nut shell oil had a higher load‐carrying capacity than ZDDP.The mechanism of the AW and EP behaviour exhibited by the different additives was investigated using X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the worn surfaces formed during friction. XPS and AES analyses of the worn surfaces reveal that the tribochemical film formed on the ADP‐tested surfaces consisted mainly of metal phosphates and only a small amount of metal sulphides, even though the ADPs contained twice the number of sulphur atoms than phosphorus atoms. The ZDDP‐tested surface showed a mixture of metal sulphides and metal phosphates. Alkylamino substitution appeared to have no significant effect on the AW/EP properties of the additive.XPS and AES analyses also revealed that the tribochemical film formed on an ADP‐tested surface was thicker than that present on the ZDDP‐tested surface at low loads, whereas at higher loads the reverse was true. The higher weld load obtained for the blend containing cashew nut shell oil‐derived ADP is attributed to the thicker adsorbed reaction film formed on the surface due to the long alkyl groups present in the original additive structure. Short‐chain alkyl groups, however, form only a thin adsorbed layer, which may get rubbed off during the friction at high load. The low sulphide formation on ADP‐tested surfaces was attributed to the absence of any metal atom in the additive, which would help in the formation of metal sulphides during tribofragmentation and further tribochemical reactions.

Estudo da atividade antimicrobiana dos ácidos anacárdicos do óleo da casca da castanha de caju (CNSL) dos clones de cajueiro-anão-precoce CCP-76 e CCP-09 em cinco estágios de maturação sobre microrganismos da cavidade bucal

The antimicrobial activity of the anacardic acids of the cashew nut shell oil Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) was studied on the oral microorganisms Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 12598, Candida albicans ATCC 10231 and Candida utilis. The anacardic acids obtained from the ethyl extract of the cashew nut shell oil presented activity antibacterial against the mentioned microorganisms, but the most inhibitory activity occurred with the Gram positive bacteria Streptococcus mutans, which is known to be one of the main cause of tooth decay. The tooth decay is one of the most frequent infectious diseases in the countries in development. The elements that influence in the tooth decay include the nutritional state, the ingestion of sugar and the presence of the microflora cariogenica.