Cases Of Foodborne Illness Research Articles

Food safety in the Dominican Republic—The current situation and challenges in the public management system

AbstractThe Dominican Republic, like other economically developing countries, has begun to shift national focus away from food security to concentrate on improving food safety and nutrition. The government of the Dominican Republic has promoted and implemented measures aimed at eradicating poverty and malnutrition and reducing the diseases that are a direct consequence of nutritional deficiencies. However, between 2013 and 2018, the Dominican Republic reported approximately 23,000 cases of foodborne illness annually. Additionally, the number of annual cases of acute diarrhea has increased to approximately 80,000 cases per year with a mortality rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) between 5.98 and 6.94. While the etiological agents responsible for these cases are often not identified, foodborne pathogens including Shigella, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella, and Campylobacter have been isolated from food exported from the Dominican Republic as well as locally consumed foods. This review describes the status of food safety in the Dominican Republic. The review focuses on what is known regarding the etiological agents involved in foodborne disease outbreaks in the country, the impact of foodborne disease, measures the Dominican Republic government has taken to ensure the safety of both exported foods and foods consumed locally, barriers to improving food safety, as well as current and emerging food safety challenges.

Study of the Correlation between Streaming Video Platform Content on Food Production Processes and the Behavioral Intentions of Generation Z.

With an estimated 2.4 million cases of foodborne illnesses recorded annually in the UK alone, food safety has become a paramount concern among stakeholders. Modern technology has positioned streaming platforms as pivotal conduits for disseminating information. Channels such as YouTube offer detailed recordings of the food production process, granting consumers extensive visibility of the food journey from farm to table. This increased transparency not only promotes vigilant monitoring of food safety practices but also solicits consumer feedback regarding the public exposure to food processing videos. Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), this study augments its framework with constructs, such as perceived trust, perceived risk, community experience, and brand identity, to evaluate Taiwan's Generation Z consumer behavioral intentions. With 226 valid responses amassed, structural equation modeling facilitated elucidation of the relationships among the constructs. This analysis yielded three salient insights. First, Generation Z's engagement with food processing videos on streaming platforms is positively correlated with their subsequent purchasing behavior. Second, enriched community experience was correlated with strengthened brand identification. Third, both perceived trust and perceived risk had a constructive impact on behavioral intentions within Gen Z's demographic data. Based on these outcomes, food industry enterprises should proactively develop and bolster community experiential value, thereby encouraging streaming platform users to transform into brand consumers and advocates.

Polyphenolic compounds in the combat of foodborne infections - An update on recent evidence.

In recent years, the incidence of food-borne bacterial enteric diseases has increased worldwide causing significant health care and socioeconomic burdens. According to the World Health Organization, there are an estimated 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses worldwide each year, resulting in 420,000 deaths. Despite intensive efforts to tackle this problem, foodborne pathogenic microorganisms continue to be spread further. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find novel anti-microbial non-toxic compounds for food preservation. One way to tackle this issue may be the usage of polyphenols, which have received increasing attention in the recent years given their pleotropic health-promoting properties. This prompted us to perform a literature search summarizing studies from the past 10 years regarding the potential anti-microbial and disease-alleviating effects of plant-derived phenolic compounds against foodborne bacterial pathogens. The included 16 studies provide evidence that polyphenols show pronounced anti-bacterial and anti-oxidant effects against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial species. In addition, synergistic anti-microbial effects in combination with synthetic antibiotics were observed. In conclusion, phenolic compounds may be useful as natural anti-microbial agents in the food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries in the combat of foodborne infections.

The antimicrobial activity of Hypericum perforatum L. flower extract against food pathogens and its non-enzymatic antioxidant activity

Foodborne pathogens pose a significant hazard to food safety. Most cases of foodborne illnesses are caused by bacterial pathogens that have infiltrated the food chain at some point, from farm to kitchen. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately one-third of individuals in developed countries are affected by foodborne pathogens each year. Although there are studies on Hypericum perforatum L. in the literature, research in Turkey remains limited. Therefore, the aim is to contribute to the literature by studying H. perforatum samples from the Yaraş region of Muğla province in Turkey. This study specifically aims to investigate the antimicrobial activities against foodborne pathogens and the antioxidant activity of H. perforatum in Muğla. The in vitro antimicrobial activities of flower components from plants grown in Mugla were evaluated using the disc diffusion method and broth dilution test. Additionally, the extracts underwent ABTS (2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethyl benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) free-radical testing to evaluate their antioxidant activity. The extract exhibited a maximum inhibition zone of 16 mm against Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes. Notably, S. aureus and L. monocytogenes demonstrated the lowest sensitivity to H. perforatum methanol extract (1625 µg/mL). The methanol extract displayed moderate antioxidant activity, with a 53% ABTS radical scavenging capacity. Consequently, the extracts of H. perforatum exhibited both antimicrobial and antioxidant potential.

Assessment of bacteriological quality and safety of raw meat at slaughterhouse and butchers’ shop (retail outlets) in Assosa Town, Beneshangul Gumuz Regional State, Western Ethiopia

Contaminated meat has been implicated in many cases of foodborne illness and poses serious challenges in developing countries. This study aimed to assess the quality and safety of raw beef meat in Assosa Town. The finding showed that the mean of Aerobic mesophilic bacteria (AMB) and S. aureus at retail outlets was 5.04 log10cfu/g and 3.84 log10cfu/g; 4.03 log10cfu/g and 3.5 log10cfu/g at slaughterhouse, respectively. The microbial load range of AMB at the butcher shop was 2.49-5.16 log10 cfu/g, while at the abattoir it was 2.75-7.52 log10 cfu/g out of 70 raw beef meat analyzed samples. Similar to this, the butcher shop and abattoir had S. aureus microbiological load ranges of 2.74 - 4.84 log10 cfu/g and 2.71-4.72 log10 cfu/g, respectively. In contrast, 25.7% and 34.3% of the samples in the abattoir and retail shop, respectively, were contaminated with Salmonella sp. For S. aureus, just 38.71% and 17.14%, respectively, of the samples at the retail and butcher shops were satisfactory. AMB found that 80% of the examined samples from butcher shops and 57.7% from abattoirs were satisfactory. Due to poor handling and environmental hygiene procedures by Assosa Town butchers, 77.1% of the meat contact surface and 82.9% of the carcass were exposed to flies. On the other hand, only 5.7%, 28.6%, and 22.9% of the butchers kept the carcass in the refrigerator, and wore gowns and hairnets, respectively. In slaughterhouses, the majority of respondents (87.5%) concur that there were certain challenges in achieving slaughtering in the working environment.

Inclusion of microbiological food safety as a novel aspect in life cycle assessments of food production

ABSTRACT The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology currently covers a limited number of human health-related impact categories. Microbiological food safety is an essential aspect for the selection of an appropriate food production system and has been neglected in the LCA so far. A framework for the inclusion of a microbiological food safety indicator, expressed as disability-adjusted life year (DALY) value of the consumed food product to the human health damage category (end-point) was created, and applied in a case study model on the cooked-chilled meals as the ready-to-eat meals can be associated with the occurrence of foodborne illness cases and outbreaks. This study suggests a framework for the inclusion of microbiological risk caused by Bacillus cereus associated with the consumption of ready-to-eat meals (in Belgium) in the LCA. The results indicated that the microbiological risk of one package of the investigated ready-to-eat meal was 1.95 × 10−6 DALY, and the obtained DALY value was included as an impact category in the LCA methodology. Inclusion of other categories of food safety (including chemical safety hazards, pesticide residues, heavy metals, and mycotoxins) in LCA could be done in the same fashion.

Effectiveness of educational intervention on KAP of food handlers and barriers to implementation of food safety: a cross sectional comparative study

Background: With an estimated 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses annually, unsafe food is a threat to human health and economies globally. World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that the future of food safety is to transform knowledge into action for people and communities. Hence, this study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of an educational intervention package on Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) of food handlers and to evaluate the barriers to implementation of food safety. Methods: This was an educational intervention before and after comparison study. All food handlers employed in food establishments located in the premises of a tertiary care hospital were included in the study. The educational intervention comprised of interactive lectures and documentaries. The responses of the participants were recorded on pre-validated questionnaires and KAP scores were calculated before and after the educational intervention. Chi square test and paired t-test were used to assess statistical significance. Results: The mean age of food handlers was 38+2 years. Majority were educated up to 12th standard. There was a significant improvement in the KAP scores pre- and post- intervention. Among the barriers recognised in ensuring food safety, the most common were manpower management and absence of basic amenities for hand washing. Conclusions: The study concludes that while educational intervention has a significant role in improving the KAP of food handlers, a holistic approach in prevention of food borne illnesses should include active participation from the stakeholders and clientele besides providing periodic training to the food handlers.

Message Convergence as Reassurance about the Safety of the Food Supply Concerning African Swine Fever Virus

Foodborne illness remains a serious risk for consumers. Knowing their vulnerability to this risk makes audiences attentive to risk messages about food safety. Though much is known about risk and crisis communication responding to known cases of foodborne illnesses, less in known about reassuring messages that the food supply is safe. This study expands our understanding of message convergence by exploring how audiences react to convergent messages intended to reassure them that no risk exists. Focus groups observed and responded to a series of messages explaining that African swine fever, though a threat to the pork industry, is not a danger to consumers. Most focus group participants recognized and saw value in message convergence based on accurate science attributed to credible sources. The study concluded that message convergence is effective in promoting reassurance; however, message convergence cannot be fully effective or sustain its positive influence unless it is ethical, adapted based on continuous dialogue with and feedback from audiences, and maintained over time. Despite these rigorous demands, message convergence has clear potential as a communication strategy for providing reassurance to audiences about the safety of the food supply. Keywords: Message convergence, foodborne illness, African swine fever, focus groups

Pan-genome analysis of the Burkholderia gladioli PV. Cocovenenans reveal the extent of variation in the toxigenic gene cluster

Burkholderia gladioli has been reported as the pathogen responsible for cases of foodborne illness in many countries. The poisonous bongkrekic acid (BA) produced by B. gladioli was linked to a gene cluster absent in non-pathogenic strains. The whole genome sequence of eight bacteria strains, which were screened from the collected 175 raw food and environmental samples, were assembled and analyzed to detect a significant association of 19 protein-coding genes with the pathogenic status. Except for the common BA synthesis-related gene, several other genes, including the toxin-antitoxin genes, were also absent in the non-pathogenic strains. The bacteria strains with the BA gene cluster were found to form a single cluster in the analysis of all B. gladioli genome assemblies for the variants in the gene cluster. Divergence of this cluster was detected in the analysis for both the flanking sequences and those of the whole genome level, which indicates its complex origin. Genome recombination was found to cause a precise sequence deletion in the gene cluster region, which was found to be predominant in the non-pathogenic strains indicating the possible effect of horizontal gene transfer. Our study provided new information and resources for understanding the evolution and divergence of the B. gladioli species.

Innovative Approaches towards Utilisation of Clams

Clams are recognized as a valuable food source, and their consumption has grown worldwide. However, this increased consumption has also been associated with various cases of foodborne illnesses. This is primarily linked to the feeding behaviour of clams, as they are filter feeders and tend to accumulate harmful substances. This review paper examines different traditional and advanced methods for processing clams, encompassing thermal and non-thermal techniques. These methods are designed to effectively control harmful microorganisms and extend the shelf life of clam products, ensuring the safety and quality of clam meat for human consumption. The review covers traditional methods such as chilling, marination, fermentation, chelation, boiling, roasting, and more, as well as advanced technologies like Microwave-Assisted Induction Heating (MAIH), High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP), and Retort Pouch Processing (RPP). Additionally, it explores the creation of value-added clam products. The comprehensive information presented in this article aims to raise awareness among consumers and processors about properly handling and processing this nutritious seafood resource, promoting safer and higher-quality clam products.

Food hygiene and food safety practices of households in a township north of Tshwane, Gauteng.

Foodborne illness is still a major public health concern worldwide. Most cases of foodborne illness can be traced to the home. The food safety practices of food handlers in the household are an important determining factor in food safety at the household level. To assess the food safety practices of food handlers in households in Ga-Rankuwa, Tshwane. The study was conducted in zones 1-9 and zone 16, as well as extension 25 of Ga-Rankuwa, Tshwane. A quantitative descriptive study design was used for which a structured questionnaire was administered among 339 food handlers. Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was performed in STATA 13.1. The majority of food handlers reported always washing their hands before (81%) and after handling raw meat, chicken or fish; the majority of food handlers (69%) reported always washing preparation surfaces and utensils with clean, soapy water after handling raw meat, chicken or fish. Less than half (45%) of food handlers reported never thawing frozen meat, chicken or fish in a bowl of cold water. The food handlers reported appropriate food safety practices regarding hand washing and food preparation surfaces and utensils. However, their practices regarding the storage of meat, chicken and fish were inappropriate. This study builds on the existing body of literature on the food safety practices of food handlers. Moreover, the study findings can serve as a basis for the development of interventions to ensure food safety at a household level.

Can foodborne illness estimates from different countries be legitimately compared?: case study of rates in the UK compared with Australia, Canada and USA

ObjectiveMathematical models have gained traction when estimating cases of foodborne illness. Model structures vary due to differences in data availability. This begs the question as to whether differences in foodborne...

Multidrug resistant enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli serogroups in the faeces of hunted Wildlife, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

Wildlife play significant roles in the dissemination and zoonotic transmission of pathogens. The enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are associated with complicated cases of food-borne illnesses. This study investigated the presence of EHEC serogroups (O26, O45, O103, O145, O91, O111, O128, O121 and O157) in wildlife species: cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus), royal antelope (Neotragus pygmaeus), African giant rats (Cricetomys gambianus) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus). EHEC and non-EHEC isolates from these wildlife sources were tested for susceptibility to antimicrobial agents. Overall, 127 (83.0 %) of 153 samples yielded E. coli. Nine (5.9%) samples were positive for EHEC belonging to three serogroups as follows; O26 (n=2), O111 (n=2) and O103 (n=5). The EHEC isolates were from cane rats (n=6) and royal antelope (n=3) and possessed virulence-associated genes stx1 (77.8%), stx2 (100.0%), eaeA (100.0%) and hlyA (100.0%). Overall, 127 E. coli isolates showed resistance to ampicillin (99.2%), ceftiofur (90.6%), tetracycline (90.0%), cephalexin (87.4%), cefotaxime (50.4%), streptomycin 42.5%, ceftazidime (41.7%), nalidixic acid (37.0%), ciprofloxacin (43.6%), amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (32.3%), gentamicin (27.6%), sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim (25.2%), norfloxacin (17.3%) and chloramphenicol (11.0%). The roles of wildlife in the dissemination and transmission of antimicrobial resistant and zoonotic bacteria should not be neglected for effective preventive and control strategies.

Surveying citizens on food safety

Surveying citizens on food safety

Sprout microbial safety: A reappraisal after a quarter‐century

AbstractThe World Health Organization estimates that each year one in 10 people worldwide falls ill after eating contaminated food, resulting in 600 million cases of foodborne diseases and 420,000 deaths. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control estimates that 48 million people get sick from a foodborne illness, 128,000 are hospitalized, and 3000 die. A very small fraction of those illnesses is due to sprouts.Commercial green sprout production began in the early 1970s, but home‐sprouting has been practiced by small numbers of people for a very long time. Twenty‐five years ago, the US Food and Drug Administration investigated 50 reported outbreaks and 2600 cases of foodborne illness associated with contaminated sprouts. Since then, the promulgation of science‐based guidelines has led to laboratory (hold‐and‐release) testing mandates for the green‐sprout industry. Home‐sprouters have become better informed of potential hazards, and they now have safer raw materials and safety‐promoting supplies available to them, and a number of online communities that exchange information rapidly. Safe microgreens (“large sprouts”) production has also grown considerably since then.Data based on more than two decades of surveillance support the thesis that sprouts are not only highly nutritious, but also very safe when responsibly produced. Both the need to select for appropriate seed “genetics” and “phenotype” and the need to test and certify seed supply for both commercial sprouters and home‐sprouters is paramount to serving a more informed and progressive sprouting public (both consumers of commercially sprouted seeds and home‐sprouters).

Cross-Contamination to Surfaces in Consumer Kitchens with MS2 as a Tracer Organism in Ground Turkey Patties

It is estimated that one in five cases of foodborne illnesses is acquired in the home. However, how pathogens move throughout a kitchen environment when consumers are preparing food is not well characterized. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence and degree of cross-contamination across a variety of kitchen surfaces during a consumer meal preparation event. Consumers (n = 371) prepared a meal consisting of turkey patties containing the bacteriophage MS2 as a tracer organism and a ready-to-eat lettuce salad. Half were shown a video on proper thermometer use before the trial. After meal preparation, environmental sampling and detection were performed to assess cross-contamination with MS2. For most surfaces, positivity did not exceed 20%, with the exception of spice containers, for which 48% of the samples showed evidence of MS2 cross-contamination. Spice containers also had the highest MS2 concentrations, at a mean exceeding 6 log viral genome equivalent copies per surface. The high level of MS2 on spice containers drove the significant differences between surfaces, suggesting the significance of spice containers as a vehicle for cross-contamination, despite the absence of previous reports to this effect. The thermometer safety intervention did not affect cross-contamination. The efficiency of MS2 transfer, when expressed as a percentage, was relatively low, ranging from an average of 0.002 to 0.07%. Quantitative risk assessment work using these data would aid in further understanding the significance of cross-contamination frequency and efficiency. Overall, these data will help create more targeted consumer messaging to better influence consumer cross-contamination behaviors.

Prophage Diversity Across Salmonella and Verotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Agricultural Niches of British Columbia, Canada.

Prophages have long been regarded as an important contributor to the evolution of Salmonella and Verotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC), members of the Enterobacteriaceae that cause millions of cases of foodborne illness in North America. In S. Typhimurium, prophages provide many of the genes required for invasion; similarly, in VTEC, the Verotoxin-encoding genes are located in cryptic prophages. The ability of prophages to quickly acquire and lose genes have driven their rapid evolution, leading to highly diversified populations of phages that can infect distantly-related bacterial hosts. To defend against foreign genetic materials (i.e., phages), bacteria have evolved Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) immunity, consisting of variable spacer regions that match short nucleic acid sequences of invaders previously encountered. The number of spacer regions varies widely amongst Enterobacteriaceae, and there is currently no clear consensus if the accumulation of spacers is linked to genomic prophage abundance. Given the immense prophage diversity and contribution to bacterial host phenotypes, we analyzed the prophage sequences within 118 strains of Salmonella and VTEC, 117 of which are of agricultural origin. Overall, 130 unique prophage sequences were identified and they were found to be remarkably diverse with <50% nucleotide similarity, particularly with the Gifsy-1 group which was identified in several Salmonella serovars and interestingly, a strain of VTEC. Additionally, we identified a novel plasmid-like phage that carried antibiotic resistance and bacteriocin resistance genes. The strains analyzed carried at least six distinct spacers which did not possess homology to prophages identified in the same genome. In fact, only a fraction of all identified spacers (14%) possessed significant homology to known prophages. Regression models did not discern a correlation between spacer and prophage abundance in our strains, although the relatively high number of spacers in our strains (an average of 27 in Salmonella and 19 in VTEC) suggest that high rates of infection may occur in agricultural niches and be a contributing driver in bacterial evolution. Cumulatively, these results shed insight into prophage diversity of Salmonella and VTEC, which will have further implications when informing development of phage therapies against these foodborne pathogens.

Challenges of Outbreak Investigation in Resort Settings: A Case of Foodborne Illness Among Hotel Conference Attendees in Urban Ghana

Background: Foodborne illness is of major public health concern. Identifying foodborne outbreaks in resort settings among short-stay travelers is complex, as these persons often leave ill and seek medical care at home.Objective: We report an outbreak investigation of diarrhoeal illness among attendees of a lunch banquet held for conference participants in a ‘first class’ hotel in Takoradi, Ghana.Method: A case was defined as three or more loose stools within 24 hours occurring after 15 hours GMT of 26th November, 2018 to 28th November, 2018. A full list of food items and ingredients served at the banquet was reviewed with the participants using a questionnaire. A retrospective cohort study was then conducted. Results: A total of 49 attendees (all females) were present at the conference and 44 (90%) participated in the banquet. Approximately 36% (16) had illness that met the case definition and none of the five who were absent during the banquet developed illness. Vegetablesalad was the most likely source of illness (RR= 2.33; 95% CI: 1.16-4.69; p &lt; 0.034). Conclusion: Although ‘first class’ hotels may have high sanitary standards; contamination of food may still occur. The short incubation period, mild and selflimiting nature of the illness suggest Staphylococcus aureus preformed toxins as the cause. Environmentaland laboratory investigations were not carried out due to late notification, low laboratory capacity and bureaucratic challenges at the site.

Consumer Awareness of the Message Not To Wash Raw Poultry, Current Practices, and Barriers to Following That Message

In the United States, an estimated 47.8 million cases of foodborne illness occur each year. Raw poultry is the most common single commodity food associated with foodborne illness. The practice of washing raw poultry is highly prevalent among consumers despite the significant cross-contamination risk. Previous educational campaigns have attempted to reduce the prevalence of washing raw poultry; however, limited information is available on how successful these campaigns have been for changing consumer behavior. An online survey was administered to 1,822 consumers in the United States via SurveyMonkey to determine whether consumers washed raw poultry and whether they were aware of the correct behavior to not wash raw poultry. Consumers who indicated that they were not aware of the correct behavior were presented with the U.S. Department of Agriculture educational message online and then asked how confident they were that they could stop washing raw poultry. The survey also included questions to identify barriers that prevented consumers who were aware of the correct behavior from not washing raw poultry. Results indicate that 73.5% (n = 1,340) of consumers reported washing raw poultry. Of those consumers, 68.1% (n = 913) indicated that they were not aware that the practice is incorrect. When these consumers were presented with the educational message, 81.9% (n = 748) indicated that they were somewhat to very confident that they could stop washing raw poultry. Of the consumers who were aware of the correct behavior but continued to wash raw poultry, 58.4% (n = 244) reported that they continued to do so because they thought they cleaned surfaces well afterward and did not believe that their washing raw poultry was a risk for cross-contamination. Data indicate that a large percentage of consumers are still not aware of the correct behavior to not wash raw poultry and a large subset of that group may easily adopt the practice if made aware of the correct behavior.

From chicken to salad: Cooking salt as a potential vehicle of Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes cross-contamination

Epidemiological studies show that improper food handling practices at home account for a significant portion of foodborne illness cases. Mishandling of raw meat during meal preparation is one of the most frequent hazardous behaviours reported in observational research studies that potentially contributes to illness occurrence, particularly through the transfer of microbial pathogens from the raw meat to ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. This study evaluated the transfer of two major foodborne pathogens, Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes, from artificially contaminated chicken meat to lettuce via cooking salt (used for seasoning) during simulated domestic handling practices. Pieces of chicken breast fillets were spiked with five different loads (from ca. 1 to 5 Log CFU/g) of a multi-strain cocktail of either S. enterica or L. monocytogenes. Hands of volunteers (gloved) contaminated by handling the chicken, stirred the cooking salt that was further used to season lettuce leaves. A total of 15 events of cross-contamination (three volunteers and five bacterial loads) were tested for each pathogen. Immediately after the events, S. enterica was isolated from all the cooking salt samples (n = 15) and from 12 samples of seasoned lettuce; whereas L. monocytogenes was isolated from 13 salt samples and from all the seasoned lettuce samples (n = 15). In addition, S. enterica and L. monocytogenes were able to survive in artificially contaminated salt (with a water activity of 0.49) for, at least, 146 days and 126 days, respectively. The ability of these foodborne pathogens to survive for a long time in cooking salt, make it a good vehicle for transmission and cross-contamination if consumers do not adopt good hygiene practices when preparing meals.