Carolingian Renaissance Research Articles

Greek and Latin Texts on the Harp and Similar Instruments in Byzantine Times

Abstract In Byzantine sources, both literary and iconographic, the harp occurs surprisingly seldom. Harpa as a term for a musical instrument is first encountered in Venantius Fortunatus. It is usually translated as ‘harp’, but at that time it most likely meant a lyre. Since the Carolingian Renaissance – when in the West often the harp, in Byzantium the psaltery gradually took the place of the lyre – the old name apparently passed to the new instrument, as similarly in the cases of cithara and ψαλτήριον. The name harpa was apparently adopted into Greek only at the end of the 14th century under Italian influence. Πλινθίον probably referred to the rectangular psaltery in Byzantium. Ἀχιλλιακόν may have meant a rare instrument in Byzantium, probably due to a misunderstanding of our Fortunatus passage.

Reversals in Wartime: Alcuin and Charlemagne discuss Retrograde Motion

The apparent retrograde motion of the planets was a puzzle for astronomers from the ancient world to the final establishment of heliocentric cosmology in the early modern period, but enjoyed an especially rich discussion in the Carolingian Renaissance. We explore the first stirrings of an eighth-century response to this epistemological challenge in a remarkable series of letters between Alcuin of York and Charlemagne, sent while the latter was on campaign against the Saxons in 798 CE. Their exchange constitutes the longest discussion of the phenomenon of Mars' retrograde motion in the West up to that date. Our consideration of the relevant letters explores Alcuin's ability to marshal diverse and complex explanatory narratives and observational traditions around the problem of the retrograde motion of the planet Mars, even as he was unable to fully reconcile them. Attention to his ultimately unsuccessful (and at times contradictory) attempts at explanation suggest that he relied on knowledge from sources beyond those previously recognized, which we identify. Charlemagne's curiosity about the matter can be located in the much longer context of an ancient tradition of imperial and royal concern with heavenly phenomena; at the same time, the exchange with Alcuin heralds the ninth-century expansion of astronomy away from the computists' preoccupation with the solar and lunar calendrical data required to calculate the date of Easter and towards a more wide-ranging curiosity about observed planetary motion irrelevant to Easter dating and computistical calculations. Alcuin's functional, if not geometrical, assumption of the centrality of the sun in his explanation merits a further examination of the more general sense in which lost ancient heliocentric ideas sustained early medieval echoes.

Переосмысление проблем каролингской истории в трудах французских историографов конца XVI - начала XVII века

The research objective involves justifying the thesis that Pierre Pithou’s (1539-1596) publications on early medieval history (records, chronicles, documents), in particular, on dethroning of Louis the Pious in 830, influenced considerably French érudites’ understanding of Carolingian Renaissance and its role in the history of French monarchy. Scientific originality of the study involves a comprehensive analysis of French historians’ works of the end of the XVI - the beginning of the XVII century through the prism of historical paradigm changes. As a result, it is proved that Carolingian monarchs were no longer perceived as a model of godly royal power, which resulted in reinterpretation of France’s role in medieval West European society.

THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES OF THE PROBLEM OF THE HIBERNOROMAN TRADITIONS DEVELOPMENT IN THE MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

In the process of scientific research the methodological tools of research of development of Roman-Irish traditions in the European system of education of the Middle Ages in unity of historical-pedagogical, biographical, anthropological, axiological, adaptive, ethnofunctional, microstructural, integral, quantitative, qualitative (qualitative), multiple structural-functional, hermeneutic, culturological approaches.Thanks to the application of a historical-pedagogical approach it was determined how Alcuin of York transmitted the experience of Irish monastic schools in the Charlemagne’s Empire, and later how Pierre Abelard used the Alcuin’s experience in shaping the Parisian educational system.The biographical approach allowed revealing the mental model of a particular figure behavior of the Carolingian Renaissance or a university professor, his contribution to European medieval culture. An anthropological approach was used to elucidate the innovations that Alcuin of York introduced into the school monastic system at times of the Carolingian Renaissance and to comprehend school reform the Charlemagne’s Empire.The axiological approach was used in the study of the Alcuin of York students’ epistolary heritage, the descendants of his scholarly school tradition.The application of the adaptive approach allowed identifying the specifics of evolutionary values in the learning process, the gradual reassessment of values, adaptation to the dynamically changing conditions of knowledge transfer in schools and universities of the early and classical Middle Ages.Applying an ethno-functional approach reveals how students perceived learning in unified Latin and whether they had a desire to communicate with each other in the language of their country and their own ancestors.Through the application of the microstructural approach, the patterns of perception and memorization of information, the performance of complex mathematical and logical operations in solving a mathematical problem, methods of mechanical reproduction and the ability to think logically were established.A holistic approach has confirmed the opinion of previous researchers that the “Carolingian tradition”, based on the Roman-Irish scientific heritage, became the “foundation” for a European university, because what remained in mainland Europe after the destruction of the Ostrogothic kingdom and the Arab conquest was not enough. The quantitative approach use enabled clarifying the accessibility and consistency of tasks in Alcuin York’s teaching system and his followers, as well as the relationship between faith and the value of knowledge.The qualitative approach use allowed identifying those components that have been traced for several centuries after the Carolingian Renaissance, including the system of encouragement and punishment, the method of syllogism, and recognition of the quadrivium complexity before the trivium, etc.Given that the educational system of Alcuin of York and his university successors provided for the consideration of each phenomenon outside of any one discipline, it was advisable to use a multidisciplinary (trans-disciplinary) approach. Due to the use of structural-functional approach in it was analyzed the university-school education system in all its components (purpose, content, means, as well as process, structure, connections, functions) and identified what was common, different, or special in it.The hermeneutic approach use allowed identifying the foundations of the Hiberno-Roman scientific tradition in the university-school system of the Middle Ages, helped to highly appreciate it.The culturological approach presupposed the identification of the conditions for human self-determination, self-creation and self-realization in the culture, education, upbringing and “scientific tradition” of the outlined epoch.

Assembling the Full Cast: Ritual Performance, Gender Transgression and Iconographic Innovation in Viking-Age Ribe

VIKING-AGE ICONOGRAPHY is mostly studied through stone sculpture and carvings and through metal dress accessories, which are often poorly contextualised finds. Here we present a new approach by studying an assemblage of casting moulds for figurative dress accessories from an early 9th-century workshop context in Ribe (Jutland, Denmark). We provide digital reconstructions of the fragmented moulds, including ‘Valkyrie’ pendants showing female figures bearing weapons. Comparable finds are mainly found in western Scandinavia, and the motifs demonstrate familiarity with images from Classical Antiquity and the Carolingian Renaissance. By highlighting iconographic and stylistic parallels with the tapestries of the Oseberg ship burial, we apply a novel perspective to the discussion of the armed woman motif and other Viking-Age figurative art. We argue that the common theme of the images is not the portrayal of heroic or mythological beings, but is instead ritual performance, in which women played a central role. We also consider the implications of the urban production context for this group of objects.

ПИСЬМА ХРИСТИАНСКОГО ИНТЕЛЛЕКТУАЛА: АЛКУИН И ЕГО ЭПИСТОЛЯРНОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ

The article examines the epistolary legacy (numbering more than three hundred letters) of Alcuin of York, perhaps the most prominent figure of the so-called Carolingian Renaissance, a famous associate of Charlemagne. Comparison of Alcuin’s letters with samples of late antique epistolography makes it possible to trace the degree of continuity of cultural and social practices of pagan Antiquity and the Christian Middle Ages. In addition, reference to Alcuin’s correspondence makes it possible to look into the inner world of a Christian intellectual, to get acquainted with the issues and problems that occupy the minds of his contemporaries, to build a scheme of Alcuin’s network communication and to understand how far his spiritual influence extended in Europe and with which social layers he communicated. Setting the goal of identifying the characteristic features of the Christian intellectual community at the turn of the VIII—IX centuries on the basis of the analysis of Alcuin’s epistolary heritage, the author of the article defines the social and geographical boundaries of the circulation of Alcuin’s letters, identifies the succession of his letters from the ancient epistolary tradition, identifies and analyzes the main problems raised in Alcuin’s letters. To achieve this goal, the article uses a historical and anthropological approach with elements of semiotic analysis. The succession of Alcuin’s correspondence from the traditions of late antique epistolography is reflected, first of all, in the form of letters, the way they were written, and the use of stable rhetorical techniques. At the same time, attention is drawn to the change in the social portrait of the address and, due to this, the expansion of the circle of addressees, which now includes not only representatives of the highest secular and church elite, but also nsufficiently educated and ignoble people, for whom Alcuin acted as a spiritual father and mentor. The analysis of the letters shows that Alcuin’s awareness of his responsibility for the fate of the addressees determines the subject matter of the letters, many of which are devoted to explaining the responsibilities of certain members of the Christian community, defining the area of responsibility of the laity and clergy, constructing of the image of an ideal clergyman or a righteous layman.

Book-borrowing in the early Middle Ages: a case study of Servatus Lupus (c. 805–862)

During the so-called ‘Carolingian Renaissance’, books circulated fluidly through networks that linked monasteries, schools, and private libraries. Some manuscripts were transported in order to serve as exemplars to copy and verify corrupted texts. Through complex social mechanisms, manuscripts were exchanged between scholars in the ninth century. The letters of Servatus Lupus, also called Lupus of Ferrières, suggest that the practice of lending was a social process primarily based on trust, reputation, and mutual obligation between scholars. This paper proposes a new understanding of the social mechanisms involved in the circulation of manuscripts during the peak of book production in the Carolingian period.

The Vindolanda Tablets again, and Now More

SummaryAt the beginning of my paper I have explained why I could not use the new finds of the Vindolanda Tablets. In this regard I quoted the letter I sent to Professor Bowman and the kind answer he gave me. Then I took into account three elements of the Vindolanda Tablets until now published that deserve attention, namely (1) the conflation of second and third conjugation of Latin verb, which is considered a feature of Vulgar Latin, (2) the presence of official language in distinguishing the familiar puer from the formal servus to mention a slave, and (3) the use of rogo (or similar verbs) + ut or the simple subjunctive. In all these cases the presumption of Vulgar Latin in Vindolanda tablets must be reduced. As to the first I actually challenged in some cases the supposed conflation of second and third conjugation. I demonstrated that the expression qui debunt (instead of debent) must be read qui debent, because the letter V of debunt is a false reading for E written in the cursive form employed not only in Vindolanda tablets but also in a letter sent by Cl. Terentianus to his father, Cl. Tiberianus, in P. Mich. VIII 468. 40. The closing greetings Valu fratur (Vindolanda Tablet 301 Plate XXIII), which of course must be read Vale frater is a proof that in the cursive formula of final greetings, written in a kind of currente calamo, a cursive script was employed and the conflation of second and third conjugation must be reduced in some cases to a cursive (and regular) script. Also as to the difference between puer and servus, and rogo + subj. (with ut or without ut) the Vindolanda’s Latin was not so vulgar as could be supposed if we consider Octavius’ and Chrautius’ Latinitas. In particular the construction of rogo + subj. (with ut or withour ut) was object of study because Latin speaker showed a great attention in choosing one or the other construction as happened in a couple of letters sent by Brutus and Cassius to Mark Antony. Maybe this depended upon the action of military scribes, as Adams right supposed. On the other hand, if we consider the role played by Brittain Latin in the Carolingian Renaissance, every defence of correct Latin in this region requires a larger investigation. Therefore the use of the new Vindolanda Letters should have a great weight.

Latinophonie altimédiévale en italie méridionale Étude des démonstratifs dans les chartes. Le cas de IPSE

SummaryThis article proposes a quantitative study of the Latin demonstratives as found in the private and original charters of written in Italy between the 8th and 10th century. It also contains a brief qualitative study of the demonstrative IPSE. Our analysis shows that the evolution of the demonstratives in the charters corresponds to their evolution in the spoken language. These analyses also appear to foreshadow the 11th and 12th century Renaissance which occurred in southern Italy and which is perhaps comparable to the Carolingian Renaissance in Gaul. The qualitative analysis of IPSE demonstrates that the grammaticalization of this demonstrative had not acquired the critical point after which it could be treated as a definite article. Aebischer’s hypothesis that IPSE and ILLE functioned as two variants acting in synonymy should therefore be rejected

Lucretius Franco-Hibernicus: Dicuil’sLiber de Astronomiaand the Carolingian Reception ofDe Rerum Natura

AbstractSince its coinage in the nineteenth century, the concept of Carolingian renaissance has been primarily based on the revival of classical texts promoted by Charlemagne and his successors. Among the positive consequences of Carolingian classicism is the careful—if discreet—preservation of the text of Lucretius’s De Rerum Natura, which survives in three valuable ninth-century manuscripts. Whereas rigorous philological studies of these manuscripts have been offered, little attention has been paid to their role in, and connection with, the reception of Lucretius in ninth-century literature. It has been generally assumed that for the Carolingians the DRN was essentially a source for grammatical and metrical usage, and extensive efforts have been made to distinguish between direct and indirect quotations of Lucretian lines. In the present paper, I shall adopt a different approach, starting from the observation that the diffusion of DRN in ninth-century Europe coincided with an increasing interest in its content. I shall argue that a deeper understanding of Lucretius’s Carolingian reception can be achieved if one overcomes the dichotomies usually maintained by the philological Quellenforschung, as such dichotomies tend to overshadow the historically and culturally specific features of the early medieval practice of imitatio. By endorsing the perspective of intertextual studies, reception theory, and rhetorical criticism, I shall point out a so far unrecognized imitatio Lucretii in the astronomical work (Liber de Astronomia) of the Irishman Dicuil, whose allusions to Lucretius—particularly to the cosmological treatment of Book 5, the so-called “apology” of Book 1 (921-50 = 4.1-25), and the calf argument of Book 2 (352-66)—are representative of the peculiarities of Carolingian reading culture.

Review: Building Anglo-Saxon England, by John Blair

John Blair Building Anglo-Saxon England Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2018, 471 pp., 109 color and 43 b/w illus. $49.95 (cloth), ISBN 9780691162980 “One of the most intractable problems in the whole range of early medieval studies concerns the dwellings of the Anglo-Saxons. It is generally agreed that they were of wood and that no example survives above ground. Beyond this the student must rely on incidental references in the literature and on the scanty data provided by excavation.” C. A. R. Radford's opening remarks on the Anglo-Saxon house in the inaugural issue of Medieval Archaeology (1957) belong to another age.1 In the sixty years since Radford wrote, archaeology has revolutionized our understanding of Anglo-Saxon architecture. This much is clear from John Blair's majestic new book, Building Anglo-Saxon England . The amount of archaeological evidence and scholarship amassed since 1957 is remarkable, and Blair uses it and his subject to advance a new history of Anglo-Saxon England. The result promises myriad new directions for Anglo-Saxon studies. A tacit objective of Blair's book is to revisit W. G. Hoskins's The Making of the English Landscape (1955)—a canonical interpretation of England's topographical history.2 In Blair's view, Anglo-Saxons “behaved within constructed space : the rural space of farms, the ritual space of holy landscapes, the administrative and defensive space of forts and installations, the hierarchical space of great halls and proto-manorial sites, the commercial space of towns” (3). As with Anglo-Saxon England's other art forms, Blair argues, the approach to architecture was distinctive and elegant. This assertion diverges boldly both from Hoskins and from prevailing postmodern and postprocessual approaches that echo art historians such as Erwin Panofsky and Walter Horn, who before and just after World War II outlined programmatic and guiding ideas for understanding and studying the Continental Carolingian Renaissance. The most innovative …

Charlemagne – Emperor and Reformer. On the 1200th Death Anniversary

The purpose of this paper is to present the role of Charlemagne (768−814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans (from 800) in the process of recovering the school organisation that was considerably weakened in the period from the 5th to the 7th century as well as the participation of the ruler in the reforms of education, science and the school system, referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance. In his reforms of the legal system, the monetary system, administration and education, Charles consistently implemented the political program announced in the Act of 789. The emperor’s actions reveal a clearly utilitarian goal. The command of Latin and the introduction of readable writing enabled the clergy to better understand the words of the Holy Scripture and, in turn, increased the general level of religious education among believers. The numerous scriptoria across the empire contributed to the ongoing work on defining the uniform text of all the books. The rebirth of Latin was driven by the works of the late Roman grammarians, Donatus and Priscian, and many works by ancient authors were also copied in scriptoria.

ОБРАЗНЫЕ ОЛИЦЕТВОРЕНИЯ ЗИМЫ И ВЕСНЫ В ЕВРОПЕЙСКОЙ И РУССКОЙ ПОЭЗИИ... (ОТ АЛКУИНА ДО Ф. И. ТЮТЧЕВА)

В статье рассмотрены наиболее характерные литературные трансформации обрядового мотива состязания Весны и Зимы на материале произведений европейской и русской поэзии и драматургии, включая Словопрение Весны с Зимой Алкуина, песни Совы и Кукушки из комедии У. Шекспира Бесплодные усилия любви, гимн Вальсингама и стихотворение Ф. И. Тютчева Зима недаром злится. Основное внимание уделяется сдвигам в структуре мотива, определяемым поэтикой художественного целого, а также особенностями бытования традиционного фольклорного спора в различных жанровых контекстах. Personi cations of Winter and Spring as contesting seasons being deeply rooted in many peoples consciousness have long literary history during which they have passed many changes under the in uence of cultural, aesthetic, and national language context.In the poetics of Alcuins Con ictus Veris et Hiemis (The Contest of Spring and Winter) the ideology and artistic principles of the Carolingian Renaissance were manifested in combination of folklore Spring call with the dialogical traditions of ancient bucolics and school rhetorical contests. The Winter here is given voice, but the victory of Spring is absolute and eternal, symbolizing the coming of the new Golden Age under the authority of Carolingian Christian empire. In Shakespeares songs of the Cuckoo and the Owl (in Loves Labours Lost) the dialogical principle is weakened, while the whole context is expanded. Instead of celebrating the moment of Springs arrival and Winters defeat the poetic diptych gives two separate pictures of reality as the moments in the year cycle. The winter frost associated with the death of Nature is also the natural teacher who prompts the man to surpass the boundaries of fallen nature. In Russian poetry of the 1830s the lyric principle in depicting personi cations of seasons strengthens against the background of romantic paradigm. In Alexander Pushkins hymn in honour of the Plague (in A Feast in the Time of Plague) Winter being deprived of its traditional opponent plays the part of the weakened substitute for the Plague, which does not eliminate the contrast between them. The new degree of lyricizing is manifested in Fyodor Tyutchevs lyric The Winter not without reason grows wroth (Zima nedarom zlitsya), in which the poet reverts to the picture of the con ict of seasons depicting it through lyrical description. The universal archetypes are refracted through national linguistic world picture making Tyutchevs lyric the model for their perception in Russian cultural domain.

‘Instructing readers’ minds in heavenly matters’: Carolingian History Writing and Christian Education

This article explores the ways in which histories were used in the moral and doctrinal education of Christian elites in the West from the late Roman to the Carolingian periods. In the sixth century, Cassiodorus wrote that histories, whether Christian or not, were useful for ‘instructing the minds of readers in heavenly matters’. How far was this characteristic of the period? Traditionally, scholars have emphasized either the apologetic purpose or the moral of specific histories, such as Orosius'sHistoriaeor Bede'sHistoria Ecclesiastica. Few modern scholars, however, have examined the long-term development of history writing as a vehicle for Christian education during the transformation of the Roman world. Those who have done, such as Karl-Ferdinand Werner and Hans-Werner Goetz, have emphasized continuity rather than change. The article sketches some of the changes and continuities across the period. In particular, it demonstrates that there was a shift from the apologetic concerns of the fifth-century historians, writing to educate Christians from pagan backgrounds, to the doctrinal (as much as moral) concerns of Frankish historians, emerging from the Carolingian Renaissance.

A Roman cathedra episcopalis from the Era of Pope Hadrian I

Among the liturgical furnishings that have survived from the early medieval period, a complete episcopal throne is a true rarity. This article examines a marble papal throne that appeared on the antiquities market in Rome in the late 1930s and is now in private hands. This cathedra is remarkable not only for its excellent state of preservation, but also for the refined sculptural decoration on its back and arms. Considering the decorative scheme as a whole, and the sculptural techniques in particular, it is likely that the throne was produced during the papacy of Hadrian I (772–95) by a stone carvers’ workshop in Rome, based at the church of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, which had been rebuilt in those years at the order of the pope himself. A comparison of archaeological data with church documents from the second half of the eighth century provides an idea of the role played by such thrones as a focal element in the program of stational liturgy observed by the popes of that era. It is entirely plausible that this rare piece of furniture came from such an important church as Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, which was annexed to one of the city’s most important deaconries. Its artistic merits open new perspectives on the state of the sculptural arts in Rome during the early phases of the so-called Carolingian Renaissance, while its great symbolic value justifies a reconsideration of the role of papal and imperial thrones in the early Middle Ages, starting with the “Cathedra of Saint Peter,” which dates from the late Carolingian era.

Humanistic aspects of Carolingian Court Poetry: Poetical Technique and Use of Sources in Paul the Deacon's Carmen X

The object of this article is the analysis of a typical specimen of Carolingian court poetry, namely Paul the Deacon’s Carmen X, which was written at the very beginning of the so-called Carolingian Renaissance in 781. In my opinion, Paul’s poem demonstrates once more how, on the one hand, the poetical technique and use of classical sources and, on the other hand, the crucial influence of the environment of Charlemagne’s court that both makes Carolingian poetry an extremely innovative literary form, and strongly connects it with the later phenomenon of Humanism.

Illuminating the Carolingian era: new discoveries as a result of scientific analyses

Comparing information from the ancient texts about the illumination of the manuscripts to the analysis of the components used to create colour in illuminations sheds interesting light. Our research team studied several manuscripts from the Carolingian era issued from different sources including: the Gospels of St Riquier kept in the library of Abbeville (ms. 4), two Theodulphe’s Bibles, (Orléans-Fleury, BnF lat.11937 and BnF lat.9380), the Godescalc Evangelistary (BnF NAL 1203), the Gospels of St Denis (BnF lat.9387) and the Gospels of St Médard de Soissons (BnF lat.8850), the last three from the court of Charlemagne, and all preserved at the French National Library. These most luxurious manuscripts were written and illuminated between the late eighth century and the first quarter of the ninth century. Through non-destructive portable visual and spectrometric analysis, our research team was able to identify the palette of materials used in scripts and illuminations and especially highlighted the amazing use of Egyptian blue in a very specific part of the illumination in the Godescalc Evangelistary. Our team also found that some substitutes including folium had been used instead of Tyrian purple for the decoration and to dye the parchment. These manuscripts, produced at the initiative of various patrons during Charlemagne’s reign, reveal in the light of the material analysis and the reconstitutions’ experiments by professional illuminators their differences and, beyond, the artistic diversity of this very particular period called the Carolingian Renaissance.

Sur les traces de Darès le Phrygien dans l'Occident médiéval

This paper surveys the medieval dissemination of De Excidio Troiae, written by Pseudo-Dares Phrygius, in an attempt to identify some of the reasons for its success. The first section introduces this text, an alleged eye-witness account of the Trojan War. In the second part, the history of the manuscript tradition is presented, paying attention to the places where this text was copied. The reception of this work can be divided into three stages: first, before the Norman Conquest of England, Dares was diffused in the regions where the Carolingian Renaissance flourished. During the 12th and 13th centuries, Dares was present mainly in France and England. During the late Middle Ages, the De Excidio Troiae was criticized by Italian humanists, but this criticism did not prevent the dissemination of this work in contemporary Italy and Germany. The history of the manuscript tradition allows us to put forward a hypothesis: beyond its inherent qualities, the historia benefited from the ambiguity of its status and the multi-layered stratification of the sources about the Trojan War.

Beyond Words: Illuminated Manuscripts in Boston Collections by Jeffrey F. Hamburger et al., and: Beyond Words: Illuminated Manuscripts in Boston Collections eds. by Jeffrey F. Hamburger et al.

Reviewed by: Beyond Words: Illuminated Manuscripts in Boston Collections by Jeffrey F. Hamburger et al., and: Beyond Words: Illuminated Manuscripts in Boston Collections eds. by Jeffrey F. Hamburger et al. Jessica Brantley Beyond Words: Illuminated Manuscripts in Boston Collections. Exhibition at the Houghton Library, Harvard University (12 September–10 December 2016); McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College (12 September–11 December 2016); and the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum (22 September 2016–16 January 2017). Curated by Jeffrey F. Hamburger, William P. Stoneman, Anne-Marie Eze, Lisa Fagin Davis, and Nancy Netzer. Jeffrey F. Hamburger, William P. Stoneman, Anne-Marie Eze, Lisa Fagin Davis, and Nancy Netzer, eds. Beyond Words: Illuminated Manuscripts in Boston Collections. Boston: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College, 2016. $85. ISBN: 978-189-28-5026-3. It is the task of an art reviewer to supply the words that describe mute objects. But the announced topic of the exhibition recently on view at three venues in Boston and commemorated in an extensive eponymous catalog makes this task unusually difficult. Beyond Words was an exceptionally rich and comprehensive gathering of illuminated manuscripts from numerous museums and libraries, tracing landmarks in the development of early books from the seventh century to the sixteenth. Moreover, the exhibition showcased a number of significant objects that have remained relatively unknown to most scholars. Hailed as "the largest exhibition of medieval manuscripts and early printed books ever held in North America" (p. 11), this event marked a significant moment for manuscript studies both in the world of medieval scholarship and also in the broader public sphere. If the pleasures of Beyond Words are not exactly inexpressible—and I will do my best to describe them here—its achievements nonetheless exceed easy summary. Beyond Words was the first exhibition to assemble the illuminated manuscripts held in Boston as a group, highlighting resources that might otherwise be overlooked because they are dispersed among the many institutions in the area. Unusually, the exhibition itself was spread over three [End Page 256] proximate venues: Harvard University's Houghton Library, Boston College's McMullen Museum of Art, and the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Everywhere the project showed the triumph of a collaborative spirit over considerable logistical challenge, for not only did nineteen local institutions lend materials, but eighty-three scholars contributed to writing the entries for the catalog. Occasionally the many hands at work produced repetitions visible to the few who would read the catalog straight through (multiple explanations of Carolingian minuscule, for example, in entries 15 and 16). Cross-references among entries—which do appear helpfully elsewhere—might have allowed the contributors to avoid such duplication. Nonetheless, both exhibition and catalog are a testament to years of successful cooperation among individuals and institutions, and an inspiring example of the rich fruit that collaboration in the humanities can bear. Each venue of the exhibition took up a different topic, and although each could have stood alone, they also worked together to tell a developing story. The first part, focusing on Manuscripts for Church and Cloister (Houghton), included those manuscripts made by the Church for itself, more from the early Middle Ages than from later periods. The second part, Manuscripts for Pleasure and Piety (McMullen), was the largest and most extensive, ranging widely among books for lay readers: devotional books, but also classical and chivalric ones, as well as professional volumes for the practice of law and medicine. Finally, Italian Humanist Books (Gardner) offered later volumes from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with a narrower geographical focus. This final collection emphasized humanist interests in content and form, often imitating the aesthetics of the classics, or the Carolingian Renaissance, even as it navigated the transition from manuscript to printed books. The three sections of the exhibition were explicitly divided by audience (religious, lay, and humanist), but overlaid on this division was an additional, more implicit, division: a chronology that moved from the early Middle Ages through the late medieval centuries to the advent of Italian humanism and the printing press. Although the symmetry between audiences and periods is not perfect, the congruence is familiar, and it provides a smooth way to organize a mass of material usefully. The Houghton...

Doctrinal Controversies of the Carolingian Renaissance: Gottschalk of Orbais’ Teachings on Predestination

The article attempts to characterize three key doctrinal controversies in the Carolingian Renaissance, namely: the disputes over the Eucharist, the so-called trina deitas, and predestination. The core of the article is an exposition of the controversy concerning predestination, whose main protagonist is Gottschalk of Orbais. The article discusses four crucial issues related to the problem: (i) the concept of God, (ii) the understanding of grace, nature and free will, (iii) the relation of foreknowledge to predestination, and (iv) the doctrine of redemption, i.e., specifically the relationship between justice and mercy. The article is largely an attempt at an interpretation of the texts of the epoch, mainly those of Gottschalk of Orbais and his adversary, Hincmar of Reims. The conclusions point to difficulties in the issues discussed and outline what attempts at solving this problem have taken place in the coming centuries.