Carnivore Management Research Articles

Do bears know they are being hunted?

Behavioral effects of living under predation risk may influence the dynamics of prey species more than direct demographic effects. Human recreation, especially hunting, can also force prey to increase their vigilance and can influence distribution and habitat use even more than natural predators. However, behavioral effects do not play a prominent role in conservation or wildlife management. Whereas the demographic consequences of hunting are documented for large carnivores, behavioral effects of hunting on their dynamics remain unexplored. We studied the movement patterns of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Scandinavia as a model species, before and after the start of the annual bear hunting season. Bears were expected to become more active at daytime as the season progressed due to shortening daylight. However, the start of hunting disrupted this pattern. Solitary bears subject to hunting increased movements during the dark hours after hunting started, losing their nocturnal rest, probably to compensate for decreased daytime activity. Females with cubs-of-the-year, which are protected from hunting, also modified their movement pattern, but much less than hunted bears. Bears altered their movement pattern at a critical time of the year, during hyperphagia, when they must store fat reserves before hibernation, which is critical for reproduction. Behavioral effects of hunting should be a relevant issue for the conservation and management of large carnivores, especially when hunting occurs during highly sensitive periods of the year. This concern applies to many species managed under hunting regimes.

Waldpolitischer Jahresrückblick 2011

Annual review of Swiss forest policy 2011 The revision of the Forest Act, the adoption of the Forest Programme 2020 by the Federal Council as well as the preparation of the second contribution period of the New System of Financial Equalisation and Division of Tasks between the Confederation and the Cantons (NFE) shaped, in addition to the routine business, the forest policy of 2011. The parliamentary initiatives on forest and forest policy issues remained of about the same amount as in previous years, while the Federal Court decisions on forest legislation have declined significantly. In various forest-related sectoral policies, the government and parliament made important decisions. In climate policy, the Parliament adopted the CO2 Law. However, this has not yet happened to the revision of the Spatial Planning Act. In nature and landscape policy, the administration has prepared the Swiss biodiversity strategy so far that the Federal Council could send it out for consultation. The revision of the Hunting Regulation, with changes in the management of large carnivores, is nearing adoption. At the international level, the Federal Council has submitted the European Landscape Convention to the Parliament for ratification, and the European forestry ministers have agreed to the preparation of a European Forest Convention.

Large predators limit herbivore densities in northern forest ecosystems

There is a lack of scientific consensus about how top-down and bottom-up forces interact to structure terrestrial ecosystems. This is especially true for systems with large carnivore and herbivore species where the effects of predation versus food limitation on herbivores are controversial. Uncertainty exists whether top-down forces driven by large carnivores are common, and if so, how their influences vary with predator guild composition and primary productivity. Based on data and information in 42 published studies from over a 50-year time span, we analyzed the composition of large predator guilds and prey densities across a productivity gradient in boreal and temperate forests of North America and Eurasia. We found that predation by large mammalian carnivores, especially sympatric gray wolves (Canis lupus) and bears (Ursus spp.), apparently limits densities of large mammalian herbivores. We found that cervid densities, measured in deer equivalents, averaged nearly six times greater in areas without wolves compared to areas with wolves. In areas with wolves, herbivore density increased only slightly with increasing productivity. These predator effects are consistent with the exploitation ecosystems hypothesis and appear to occur across a broad range of net primary productivities. Results are also consistent with theory on trophic cascades, suggesting widespread and top-down forcing by large carnivores on large herbivores in forest biomes across the northern hemisphere. These findings have important conservation implications involving not only the management of large carnivores but also that of large herbivores and plant communities.

Is Human Fear Affecting Public Willingness to Pay for the Management and Conservation of Large Carnivores?

From an interdisciplinary approach, this study aims at analyzing self-reported animal fear, specifically large carnivore fear, in relation to public willingness to pay to fulfill a governmental policy on large carnivore-induced costs. In a survey in Sweden involving more than 2,000 respondents, it was found that people whose animal fear was directed particularly toward large carnivores were less likely to be willing to pay these costs, or were likely to be willing to pay a lower amount of money. In the prediction of willingness to pay (WTP), the contribution of the fear variable was as equally important as previously addressed socioeconomic factors.

Influence of intraguild interactions on resource use by wolverines and Eurasian lynx

It is important to the conservation and management of threatened or endangered carnivores to recognize interspecific interactions that can influence demography or behavior of the species involved. We studied the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), an efficient predator, and wolverine (Gulo gulo), an opportunistic predator and scavenger, that coexist in the reindeer husbandry area in northern Sweden. Both species are major predators on semidomestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), but wolverines frequently scavenge ungulate carcasses. We examined the composition and use of food resources by wolverines and in particular the relative importance of lynx-killed reindeer in wolverine diet. We also examined the influence of wolverine scavenging on lynx kill rate. We found that 52% of carcasses visited by wolverines were lynx-killed reindeer, but only 11% were wolverine-killed reindeer. Of all wolverine locations at carcasses, 28% were on lynx-killed and 24% on wolverine-killed reindeer. Remaining locations were mainly on reindeer that died from accidents (23%) or were killed by unknown carnivores (9%). Lynx predation rate on reindeer was nine times higher than that of wolverines. Wolverines scavenged 68% of available lynx-killed reindeer, 29% of which were still being used by lynx at wolverine arrival. Still, wolverine scavenging had a limited influence on lynx kill rate. Time to next kill decreased only when the lynx kill was an adult reindeer in forest; however, most lynx-killed reindeer were found on tundra. Wolverines appear to benefit from coexistence with lynx through increased scavenging opportunities. We suspect that lynx presence reduces wolverine predation on reindeer due to increased scavenging opportunities. These results may have important implications for carnivore management in reindeer husbandry areas.

Estimating population size and trends of the Swedish brown bear Ursus arctos population

AbstractEstimating population size and trends are key issues in the conservation and management of large carnivores. The rebounding brown bear Ursus arctos population in Sweden is monitored by two different systems, both relying on voluntary resources. Population estimates have been calculated using Capture‐Mark‐Recapture methods, based on DNA‐based scat surveys in five of the six Swedish counties with established bear populations. A total of 1,358 genotypes were identified using DNA extracted from collected scats. An independent ongoing programme, the Large Carnivore Observation Index (LCOI), was initiated in 1998. The LCOI uses effort‐corrected observations of bears by moose Alces alces hunters during the moose hunt (> 2 million observation hours/year) and has shown a good correlation with relative population density of bears using the DNA‐based method. From this, we have calculated population trends during the period 1998‐2007. Using an exponential model, we estimated the yearly increase in the bear population to be 4.5% at the national level, varying between 0 and 10.2% in different counties. We used the regional population estimates and the trends from the LCOI, taking the variation from both systems into account using parametric bootstrapping, to calculate the regional as well as the national population size in Sweden in fall 2008. In one case (the northernmost county; Norrbotten) a DNA‐scat survey was lacking, so we used assumptions based on data from the neighbouring county to estimate population size. We estimated the Swedish brown bear population to be 3,298 individuals (2,968‐3,667; 95% confidence intervals) in 2008. Our results suggest that reliable information, necessary for the management of the brown bear population can be obtained from volunteers using standardised methods.

The Role of Large Carnivore Committees in Legitimising Large Carnivore Management in Finland and Sweden

Many countries, including Sweden and Finland, are decentralizing the management of large carnivore species within their borders and emphasizing the role of stakeholder participation in legitimizing formal policy. Regional large carnivore committees (RLCCs), including representatives of authorities and non-governmental organizations, are essential to these endeavors. These committees are formally constituted in Sweden, whereas in Finland, they are informally developed from the bottom-up. In both countries, the declared roles of these committees are consultative. A comparative study based on survey data is described here, which address the question of how procedural legitimacy is shaped and maintained in institutional settings with different origins, such as top-down or bottom-up. The results indicate no clear difference in the representatives' general satisfaction with the country-specific arrangements. Notable differences were found in specific perceptions of the clarity and purposes of the RLCCs. In both countries, the perceived rationale for the establishment of RLCCs emphasized the knowledge and expertise of the represented interest groups and authorities. Between the countries, similarities were also found in the strong links between overall satisfaction and personally perceived success and progress in communication and information exchange, i.e., deliberative processes. The capacity of the RLCCs to improve trust and acceptability with regard to different opinions was viewed as a key element underlying satisfactory RLCC activities, irrespective of the institutional settings.

Subjective Experience of Fear and the Cognitive Interpretation of Large Carnivores

This study describes the psychological characteristics of fear of brown bear (Ursus arctos) and wolf (Canis lupus) using the Cognitive Vulnerability Model. Data were obtained from a survey of 154 stakeholders. Subjective experience of fear was primarily linked to the perceived danger or harm that the animal represents and the perceived uncontrollability of the person's own response when encountering an animal. Feelings of disgust and perceived unpredictability of the animals' movements were of less importance. To reduce fear of brown bear and wolf it might therefore be more effective to enable people to learn more about their own reactions rather than learning more about wolf or bear behavior. Stakeholders varied in terms of which perceptions were more strongly linked to the fear. In efficient management of large carnivores, the consequences for the cognitive vulnerability in different stakeholder groups should be considered.

Could controlling mammalian carnivores lead to mesopredator release of carnivorous reptiles?

Emerging evidence increasingly illustrates the importance of a holistic, rather than taxon-specific, approach to the study of ecological communities. Considerable resources are expended to manage both introduced and native mammalian carnivores to improve conservation outcomes; however, management can result in unforeseen and sometimes catastrophic outcomes. Varanid lizards are likely to be apex- or mesopredators, but being reptiles are rarely considered by managers and researchers when investigating the impacts of mammalian carnivore management. Instances of mesopredator release have been described for Varanus gouldii as a result of fox and cat management in Australia, with cascading effects on faunal community structure. A meta-analysis showing extensive dietary niche overlap between varanids, foxes and cats plus a review of experimental and circumstantial evidence suggests mesopredator release of V. gouldii and about five other medium to large species of varanid lizard is likely in other regions. This highlights the need for managers to adopt a whole-of-community approach when attempting to manage predators for sustained fauna conservation, and that additional research is required to elucidate whether mesopredator release of varanids is a widespread consequence of carnivore management, altering the intended faunal responses.

Sustainably Harvesting a Large Carnivore? Development of Eurasian Lynx Populations in Norway During 160 Years of Shifting Policy

The management of large carnivores in multi-use landscapes is always controversial, and managers need to balance a wide range of competing interests. Hunter harvest is often used to limit population size and distribution but is proving to be both controversial and technically challenging. Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) are currently managed as a game species in Norway. We describe an adaptive management approach where quota setting is based on an annual census and chart the population development through the period 1996-2008, as management has become significantly more sophisticated and better informed by the increased availability of scientific data. During this period the population has been through a period of high quotas and population decline caused by fragmented management authority and over optimistic estimates of lynx reproduction, followed by a period of recovery due to quota reductions. The modern management regime is placed in the context of shifting policy during the last 160 years, during which management goals have moved from extermination stimulated by bounties, through a short phase of protection, and now to quota-regulated harvest. Much management authority has also been delegated from central to local levels. We conclude that adaptive management has the potential to keep the population within some bounded limits, although there will inevitably be fluctuation.

Large-scale noninvasive genetic monitoring of wolverines using scats reveals density dependent adult survival

Noninvasive genetic monitoring has the potential to estimate vital rates essential for conservation and management of many species. In a long-term genetic capture-mark-recapture study using scats we evaluated temporal variation in adult survival in a wolverine ( Gulo gulo) population in southern Norway. In contrast to most previous studies of large mammals we found evidence for negative density dependence in adult survival in this large carnivore. Both sexes showed the same pattern of density dependence, with higher annual survival rates in adult females than males. In addition, we also found an additive mortality effect of harvesting in the population, resulting in the lowest adult survival rates at a combination of high population density and high harvest rate. The additive effects of density and harvest on adult survival of wolverines have relevance to the conservation and management of solitary carnivores with strong intrasexual territoriality, especially for species where combats among conspecifics can cause serious injury or even mortality.

Source populations in carnivore management: cougar demography and emigration in a lightly hunted population

AbstractWildlife agencies typically attempt to manage carnivore numbers in localized game management units through hunting, and do not always consider the potential influences of immigration and emigration on the outcome of those hunting practices. However, such a closed population structure may not be an appropriate model for management of carnivore populations where immigration and emigration are important population parameters. The closed population hypothesis predicts that high hunting mortality will reduce numbers and densities of carnivores and that low hunting mortality will increase numbers and densities. By contrast, the open population hypothesis predicts that high hunting mortality may not reduce carnivore densities because of compensatory immigration, and low hunting mortality may not result in more carnivores because of compensatory emigration. Previous research supported the open population hypothesis with high immigration rates in a heavily hunted (hunting mortality rate=0.24) cougar population in northern Washington. We test the open population hypothesis and high emigration rates in a lightly hunted (hunting mortality rate=0.11) cougar population in central Washington by monitoring demography from 2002 to 2007. We used a dual sex survival/fecundity Leslie matrix to estimate closed population growth and annual census counts to estimate open population growth. The observed open population growth rate of 0.98 was lower than the closed survival/fecundity growth rates of 1.13 (deterministic) and 1.10 (stochastic), and suggests a 12–15% annual emigration rate. Our data support the open population hypothesis for lightly hunted populations of carnivores. Low hunting mortality did not result in increased numbers and densities of cougars, as commonly believed because of compensatory emigration.

Transboundary management of large carnivores in Europe: from incident to opportunity

AbstractTransboundary management of large carnivores, such as that of bears in the human dominated landscapes in Europe is rife with challenges. During summer 2006, brown bear JJ1, one of the 27 cubs born in the Central Alps between 2002 and 2006, as a result of reintroduction efforts carried out in Trentino, Italy, wandered into Austria and Germany. Despite the public outcry he was eventually shot. The death of JJ1 turned into a real international incident that prompted the countries affected to meet and discuss how to manage bears at transboundary level. The author uses the policy sciences approach to map out the social context in which reintroductions and management of large carnivores are occurring and from there suggest possible approaches to improve their success.

Management of Large Carnivores in Fennoscandia: New Patterns of Regional Participation

Countries are increasingly shifting responsibility for large carnivore management from central to local government authorities. The three countries in Fennoscandia—Finland, Norway, and Sweden—are no exception. In all three countries new approaches to large carnivore management have emerged, including some elements of decentralization, which is intended to increase efficiency, and improve the equity, participation, and transparency of the government to the citizenry. Although the three countries are similar in terms of their biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics, they have chosen three different decentralization strategies. In Norway a representative model of decentralization has emerged, whereas the Swedish and Finnish model has a corporatist character. This comparative study of policies relating to the large carnivores in the three countries focuses on the actors, and their powers and accountability, and demonstrates that the different strategies result in no significant increase in power at the local or regional level.

Home range utilisation and territorial behaviour of lions (Panthera leo) on Karongwe Game Reserve, South Africa.

Interventionist conservation management of territorial large carnivores has increased in recent years, especially in South Africa. Understanding of spatial ecology is an important component of predator conservation and management. Spatial patterns are influenced by many, often interacting, factors making elucidation of key drivers difficult. We had the opportunity to study a simplified system, a single pride of lions (Panthera leo) after reintroduction onto the 85 km2 Karongwe Game Reserve, from 1999–2005, using radio-telemetry. In 2002 one male was removed from the paired coalition which had been present for the first three years. A second pride and male were in a fenced reserve adjacent of them to the east. This made it possible to separate social and resource factors in both a coalition and single male scenario, and the driving factors these seem to have on spatial ecology. Male ranging behaviour was not affected by coalition size, being driven more by resource rather than social factors. The females responded to the lions on the adjacent reserve by avoiding the area closest to them, therefore females may be more driven by social factors. Home range size and the resource response to water are important factors to consider when reintroducing lions to a small reserve, and it is hoped that these findings lead to other similar studies which will contribute to sound decisions regarding the management of lions on small reserves.

Multi-host pathogens and carnivore management in southern Africa

A retrospective serosurvey of multi-host feline and canine viruses among carnivore species in southern Africa (n = 1018) identified widespread pathogen exposure even in remote protected areas. In contrast to mortality experienced in East African predators, canine distemper virus (CDV) infection among African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Botswana was not associated with identifiable change in pup survivorship or disease related mortality of adults. A disease outbreak of unknown aetiology occurred in the same population over 4 weeks in 1996. Outbreak boundaries coincided with ecotones, not the spatial distribution of contiguous packs, highlighting the potential importance of landscape heterogeneities in these processes. Direct management of pathogens in domestic animal reservoirs is complicated by the apparent complexity of pathogen maintenance and transmission in these large systems. Conservation effort should be focused at securing large metapopulations able to compensate for expected episodic generalist pathogen invasion and attention directed to addressing underlying causes of population depression such as habitat loss and wildlife conflict.

Spatiotemporal Distribution of Black Bear‐Human Conflicts in Colorado, USA

Abstract: Management and conservation of large carnivores increasingly includes conflicts with humans. Consequently, a greater understanding of spatiotemporal trends of conflicts is needed to efficiently allocate resources and apply targeted management. Therefore, we examined spatial and temporal distribution of American black bear (Ursus americanus; hereafter, bear)‐human conflicts in Colorado, USA, related to 3 conflict types (agriculture operations, human development, and road kills). We used the Getis‐Ord Gi* spatial clustering statistic to describe location and assess magnitude of bear‐human conflicts in Colorado during 1986–2003 and investigated temporal trends of bear‐human conflicts by type. Bear‐human conflicts showed distinct spatial clustering by type, and areas of high clustering overlapped conflict types. Clustering for agriculture operations conflicts had the largest overall Gi* value and overlapped counties with high sheep production. Both human development and road‐kill conflict clusters were high in areas of high‐quality oak (Quercus spp.)—shrub habitat in the central and southern portions of Colorado's Front Range region and near the city of Durango in southwestern Colorado. Bear‐human conflicts varied by year and type but overall increased during the 18 years. Summed across years, most conflicts were related to agriculture (32%), followed by road kills (27%) and human development (24%). The greatest proportion of agriculture operations‐related conflicts (76%), human development‐related conflicts (36%), and road kills (47%) occurred in 1988, 1999, and 2003, respectively. Considering that bear‐human conflicts in Colorado increased over time and will likely continue to increase, we suggest wildlife managers improve data collection by obtaining detailed location data, categorizing conflict types uniformly, and applying conflict regulations consistently to strengthen inference of similar analyses. We also suggest that managers target efforts to mitigate damage by focusing on areas with high clustering of conflicts.

Parasites in Captive Carnivores at the Animal Orphanage in Kenya

This study assessed endoparasitic diversity before and after anthelmintic treatment in captive lions, cheetahs, jackals, serval and sokoke cats, and hyenas at the Nairobi Animal Orphanage. The animals were treated with a broad-spectrum anthelmintic, Canex 4®. Faecal and /or vomitus samples were macroscopically examined for adult parasites. Faecal sedimentation and floatation techniques were used to assess the presence of eggs and oocysts. Of the 27 animals in this study, 23 (85%) were positive for Spirometra spp. eggs, while 21 animals (77.7%) positive for Isospora spp. eggs. Toxocara spp. and Toxascaris spp. eggs were both 66.6% prevalent. Ancylostoma spp. eggs were 62.9% prevalent. Jackals had the highest parasite egg diversity with six genera. Adult parasites were recovered from lion vomitus, which included Aelurostrongylus sp. Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati and Taenia spp. Adult parasites recovered from faecal material were Toxascaris leonina and Toxocara canis. Deworming is an essential component in good management of captive carnivores but need to be accompanied with regular assessments to determine parasite diversity and the efficacy of the drug in use. Sampling for enteric parasites should include vomitus as some parasite propagules may not be found in faecal samples. Keywords: Parasites, Carnivores, Wildlife, Captivity, Anthelmintic, KenyaKenya Veterinarian Vol. 31 (2) 2007: pp. 59-63

Terrestrial carnivores and human food production: impact and management

1. The production of food for human consumption has led to an historical and global conflict with terrestrial carnivores, which in turn has resulted in the extinction or extirpation of many species, although some have benefited. At present, carnivores affect food production by: (i) killing human producers; killing and/or eating (ii) fish/shellfish; (iii) game/wildfowl; (iv) livestock; (v) damaging crops; (vi) transmitting diseases; and (vii) through trophic interactions with other species in agricultural landscapes. Conversely, carnivores can themselves be a source of dietary protein (bushmeat). 2. Globally, the major areas of conflict are predation on livestock and the transmission of rabies. At a broad scale, livestock predation is a customary problem where predators are present and has been quantified for a broad range of carnivore species, although the veracity of these estimates is equivocal. Typically, but not always, losses are small relative to the numbers held, but can be a significant proportion of total livestock mortality. Losses experienced by producers are often highly variable, indicating that factors such as husbandry practices and predator behaviour may significantly affect the relative vulnerability of properties in the wider landscape. Within livestock herds, juvenile animals are particularly vulnerable. 3. Proactive and reactive culling are widely practised as a means to limit predation on livestock and game. Historic changes in species' distributions and abundance illustrate that culling programmes can be very effective at reducing predator density, although such substantive impacts are generally considered undesirable for native predators. However, despite their prevalence, the effectiveness, efficiency and the benefit:cost ratio of culling programmes have been poorly studied. 4. A wide range of non-lethal methods to limit predation has been studied. However, many of these have their practical limitations and are unlikely to be widely applicable. 5. Lethal approaches are likely to dominate the management of terrestrial carnivores for the foreseeable future, but animal welfare considerations are increasingly likely to influence management strategies. The adoption of non-lethal approaches will depend upon proof of their effectiveness and the willingness of stakeholders to implement them, and, in some cases, appropriate licensing and legislation. 6. Overall, it is apparent that we still understand relatively little about the importance of factors affecting predation on livestock and how to manage this conflict effectively. We consider the following avenues of research to be essential: (i) quantified assessments of the loss of viable livestock; (ii) landscape-level studies of contiguous properties to quantify losses associated with variables such as different husbandry practices; (iii) replicated experimental manipulations to identify the relative benefit of particular management practices, incorporating (iv) techniques to identify individual predators killing stock; and (v) economic analyses of different management approaches to quantify optimal production strategies.

A multidimensional approach to managing the European brown bear in Croatia

Because of its biological characteristics, its important place in the minds of humans, and the considerable international interest for its conservation, management of the brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Europe is challenging. The Brown Bear Management Plan for Croatia (BMPC) was approved in 2004 and addressed interests such as ecology, aesthetics, and economics, as well as concern for the safety of people and property. It attempts to ensure conditions for the long-term survival of the brown bear, a species listed as endangered by some international regulations but as a game species (subject to regulated hunting) in others, including Croatia. Careful evaluation of actions affecting population size represents the most critical part of this plan. Those actions should sustain long-term viability of the bear population while maintaining densities at a level that minimize human–bear conflict. To achieve this goal, a series of actions and measures have to be regulated that are related to (1) bear habitat, (2) human activities in the habitat (e.g., highway construction, feeding of bears by humans), (3) prevention of problematic bear occurrences, and (4) the scientific monitoring of population changes. Although the plan's development and implementation is the responsibility of bear management experts, various interests groups were considered. In large carnivore management, and especially in bear management, there are no final and universal solutions. Changes in the number of bears, areas of their presence, or behavior require new decisions. This plan offers guidelines for the decision-making process, and, because it includes a revision process, can be adapted to address new circumstances that arise. Citizens interested in conservation, not only in Croatia but also in neighboring countries, expect Croatia to work toward maintaining the long-term existence of as many bears as possible in appropriate habitats, with as few negative effects as possible. This plan is an important step in fulfilling those expectations.