Carnivore-livestock Conflicts Research Articles

Multidisciplinary engagement for fencing research informs efficacy and rancher-to-researcher knowledge exchange

Across much of the Western United States, recovery of large carnivore populations is creating new challenges for livestock producers. Reducing the risks of sharing the landscape with recovering wildlife populations is critical to private working lands, which play an vital role in securing future energy, water, food, and fiber for an ever-expanding human population. Fencing is an important mitigation practice that many ranchers, land managers, and conservationists implement to reduce carnivore-livestock conflict. While fencing strategies have been reviewed in the literature, research seldom incorporates knowledge from the people who utilize fencing the most (i.e., livestock producers). Incorporating producers and practitioners early in the process of producing scientific knowledge is proving to be a critical endeavor for enhancing knowledge exchange, better evaluation of the practice, and more realistic understanding of the costs and benefits. Here, we describe how our multidisciplinary effort of co-producing knowledge informs understanding of the effectiveness of various fencing designs and more importantly provides a better mechanism for transferring this knowledge between producers, researchers, and land managers. We explain the process underway and demonstrate that incorporating producers and practitioners from the onset allows research priorities and expected outcomes to be set collaboratively, gives transparency to the agricultural community of the research process, provides a critical lens to evaluate efficacy and functionality, and will inform the practicality of fencing as a conflict prevention tool. We discuss opportunities and challenges of this co-production process and how it can be applied to other realms of fencing and conflict prevention strategies.

Human–Wildlife Conflicts across Landscapes—General Applicability vs. Case Specificity

Here, we address the question of if/to what extent human–wildlife conflict (HWC) can be reduced or mitigated by supra-regional or even global approaches, or whether case- and region-specific strategies are necessary. First, we try to shift the perspective from humans towards wildlife and regard modern era (near) extinctions of selected wildlife species as an ultimate expression of HWC. We then reflect on the legitimacy of ecosystem comparisons beyond the borders of biogeographical regions—an important prerequisite for global approaches. In the following, we present two case scenarios that exemplarily illustrate the topic from different perspectives: carnivore–livestock conflicts (classical view, human perspective) and wind turbine-induced mortality of bats (wildlife perspective, rarely regarded as a form of HWC). On this basis, we try to develop a framework that enables a global approach, while adequately considering case- and region-specificity. We think that a globally valid and generally approachable dimension can be defined, as long as there is a natural link: in the present case the established monophyly of the orders Carnivora and Chiroptera, i.e., representatives descending from common ancestors, thus sharing common ecological features. This natural relationship among all representatives of a systematic group (specification of the “wildlife” concept) is key for the development of an overarching strategy that can be adjusted to a specific case.

Livestock guarding dogs have minor effects on the parasite burden of wild carnivores.

Livestock guarding dogs are increasingly used to reduce carnivore-livestock conflicts, but no information is available to determine any adverse effects that these dogs may have on the health of wild carnivores. We assessed differences in prevalence, richness and severity of parasites in chilla fox (Lycalopex griseus) populations associated with livestock guarding dogs, which were routinely dewormed. We also evaluated whether the parasite assemblages of herding dogs, which were not dewormed, and chilla foxes were more similar in the presence of livestock guarding dogs. Scats of L. griseus and herding dogs were collected and screened for parasite eggs in areas with and without livestock guarding dogs to determine differences in prevalence, richness, intensity and parasite aggregation. We did not find any association between livestock guarding dogs and differences in parasite richness or prevalence of parasites. The intensity of parasites was higher among foxes positive to parasites when LGDs were present. A lower proportion of foxes with low parasite burdens occurred in areas with LGDs compared to areas without LGDs, but this difference was not significant at the population level. Our findings show the need to continue studying the effects of livestock guarding dogs on the health of wildlife with larger sample sizes and more locations.

Prey partitioning between sympatric wild carnivores revealed by DNA metabarcoding: a case study on wolf (Canis lupus) and coyote (Canis latrans) in northeastern Washington

Accurate dietary inference of wild carnivores is essential to understand their impacts on the ecosystem and manage carnivore-livestock conflicts. Diet analysis with fecal DNA metabarcoding technology can help deliver valuable insights with fine-grained resolution. The recovery of wolves in Washington, USA offers an excellent opportunity to study the diet of this iconic carnivore species and explore prey partitioning between sympatric wolves and coyotes. We characterized the diet composition and spatiotemporal dietary variations in each species using fecal DNA metabarcoding technology on 202 fecal samples from wolves (N = 99) and coyotes (N = 103) collected across three wolf pack ranges and two seasons in northeastern Washington. We also quantified the diet niche overlap between these two canid species. In total, 19 different prey items were detected, with most assigned at the species level. Frequency of occurrence (FOO) data showed that wolves primarily preyed upon deer (Odocoileus sp.; 47.5%) and moose (Alces alces; 42.4%). Coyotes also consumed moose (30.1%) and deer (21.4%), but snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) were the most common prey (61.2%) in the coyote diet. Multiple samples were found to contain DNA from domestic animals, including pig, rabbit, and cow. Results on diet composition using FOO and relative read abundance were qualitatively similar, indicating a strong biological pattern. We found significant spatial variations in the wolf diet composition (p = 0.001) and significant spatio temporal variations in the coyote diet (pack range: p = 0.003; season: p = 0.023). Dietary overlap between these two canid species varied with pack ranges and seasons ( $$O$$ = 0.08–0.74). Our study demonstrates that fecal DNA metabarcoding is an efficient non-invasive tool to characterize high-resolution diet profiles of carnivores and monitor their dietary changes over space and time. Limitations of fecal DNA metabarcoding are also discussed.

An ecological framework for contextualizing carnivore-livestock conflict.

Carnivore predation on livestock is a complex management and policy challenge, yet it is also intrinsically an ecological interaction between predators and prey. Human-wildlife interactions occur in socioecological systems in which human and environmental processes are closely linked. However, underlying human-wildlife conflict and key to unpacking its complexity are concrete and identifiable ecological mechanisms that lead to predation events. To better understand how ecological theory accords with interactions between wild predators and domestic prey, we developed a framework to describe ecological drivers of predation on livestock. We based this framework on foundational ecological theory and current research on interactions between predators and domestic prey. We used this framework to examine ecological mechanisms (e.g., density-mediated effects, behaviorally mediated effects, and optimal foraging theory) through which specific management interventions operate, and we analyzed the ecological determinants of failure and success of management interventions in 3 case studies: snow leopards (Panthera uncia), wolves (Canis lupus), and cougars (Puma concolor). The varied, context-dependent successes and failures of the management interventions in these case studies demonstrated the utility of using an ecological framework to ground research and management of carnivore-livestock conflict. Mitigation of human-wildlife conflict appears to require an understanding of how fundamental ecological theories work within domestic predator-prey systems.

Ecological Attributes of Carnivore-Livestock Conflict

Mitigation of carnivore-human conflict due to domestic animal predation represents an imperative challenge. Although livestock management strategies aimed at reducing predation have recently received attention by wildlife managers and producers, the information regarding ecological attributes of studied predators and environmental characteristics of the areas where conflicts occur is largely missing. We conducted a global review to characterize the literature of carnivore-livestock conflict, identifying the set of reported predators, and assessing the ecological attributes of these species and areas where predation has occurred. A total of 391 published peer-reviewed research papers on carnivore-livestock conflict containing 783 predation study cases were evaluated. Carnivore-livestock conflict research was largely conducted in Asian and African countries (80% of published studies). Fifty-two carnivores were reported in conflict-related studies being Felidae and Canidae the most frequently studied groups (80% of study cases). Carnivores more often reported to prey on domestic animals exhibit larger home ranges and body masses, and are also subject to larger reductions in their distribution ranges. They also show a generalist habitat behavior, a strictly carnivore diet, and cathemeral activity. Predation of domestic animals consistently increased with vegetation cover, decreased with distance from human settlement and was higher in young animals. The analysis conducted separately for large and meso carnivores showed that predation on domestic animals by large carnivores (> 21.5 kg) increased near protected areas and far from human settlements. Current information regarding conflicts exhibits a notable variation in research effort towards some regions and large-bodied and broadly distributed species. This asymmetry could reflect the role of human perspectives in research based on species-level traits, research facilities and funding opportunities, though also underlies ecological processes induced by land transformation occurring in some regions across the globe. As encroached habitat increases, species with restricted distributions and behaviors, or smaller home ranges such as meso carnivores, will roam into human-dominated landscapes, increasing their probability of interacting with livestock activity. Identifying ecological attributes that distinguish carnivores and areas as “conflict-prone” may contribute to set evidence-based management approaches in frameworks ready to anticipate, reduce or prevent human-carnivore conflict, complementing the use of other strategies.

Landscape of fear and human-predator coexistence: Applying spatial predator-prey interaction theory to understand and reduce carnivore-livestock conflict

In recent decades the ‘landscape of fear’ has grown in popularity to become a central consideration in wildlife management, and has even been reconceptualized as the ‘landscape of coexistence’ for understanding human-wildlife conflicts such as predator attacks on livestock. Yet fear effects are not always the predominant driver of predator-prey interactions. Thus, guiding ecological principles have not been assembled to explain the broader food web interactions that shape the context dependency of carnivore-livestock conflict. We address this gap by developing a conceptual framework as a way to think about the contingencies under which inducing non-consumptive ‘fear effects’ on predators would be effective to mitigate carnivore-livestock conflict. The framework specifically considers interactions among wildlife (carnivore predators, wild ungulate prey) and humans (people and livestock) in terms of spatial predator-prey assemblages in which the nature of wildlife-human interactions – as either a carnivore-livestock conflict or a coexistence food web – is contingent on the nature of spatial movement and overlap of humans and wildlife across landscapes. Considering human-wildlife interactions within such a spatial food web context can assist in enabling people and wildlife, especially imperiled carnivores, to coexist in human-modified landscapes. The framework offers predictions that should be tested via adaptive management experiments that evaluate whether conflict mitigation solutions aligned with particular spatial human-livestock-carnivore contexts do indeed resolve conflict.

Carnivore-livestock conflicts in Chile: Evidence and methods for mitigation

Carnivore-livestock conflicts in Chile: Evidence and methods for mitigation

Plasticity in elk migration timing is a response to changing environmental conditions.

Migration is an effective behavioral strategy for prolonging access to seasonal resources and may be a resilient strategy for ungulates experiencing changing climatic conditions. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), elk are the primary ungulate, with approximately 20,000 individuals migrating to exploit seasonal gradients in forage while also avoiding energetically costly snow conditions. How climate-induced changes in plant phenology and snow accumulation are influencing elk migration timing is unknown. We present the most complete record of elk migration across the GYE, spanning 9 herds and 414 individuals from 2001 to 2017, to evaluate the drivers of migration timing and test for temporal shifts. The timing of elk departure from winter range involved a trade-off between current and anticipated forage conditions, while snow melt governed summer range arrival date. Timing of elk departure from summer range and arrival on winter range were both influenced by snow accumulation and exposure to hunting. At the GYE scale, spring and fall migration timing changed through time, most notably with winter range arrival dates becoming almost 50days later since 2001. Predicted herd-level changes in migration timing largely agreed with observed GYE-wide changes-except for predicted winter range arrival dates which did not reflect the magnitude of change detected in the elk telemetry data. Snow melt, snow accumulation, and spring green-up dates all changed through time, with different herds experiencing different rates and directions of change. We conclude that elk migration is plastic, is a direct response to environmental cues, and that these environmental cues are not changing in a consistent manner across the GYE. The impacts of changing elk migration timing on predator-prey dynamics, carnivore-livestock conflict, disease ecology, and harvest management across the GYE are likely to be significant and complex.

Management Tools to Reduce Carnivore-Livestock Conflicts: Current Gap and Future Challenges

Predation on domestic animals by carnivores is a persistent problem wherever carnivores and livestock co-occur. A wide range of management tools to reduce predation has been invoked. However, the evidence of their effectiveness is still limited for a broader range of species and conditions. Using a global analysis of domestic animal predation by native carnivores under a “before-after/control-impact” framework, we assessed the effectiveness of management techniques used to reduce domestic animal predation identifying knowledge gaps and research needs. We reviewed 291 predation cases in 149 studies published between 1990 and 2017 involving 47 carnivores. Lethal control is the most common method to reduce predation in comparison with nonlethal techniques. Yet the effectiveness of both approaches remains poorly evaluated (30.1% of study cases) and largely based on producers’ perceptions (70% of cases where effectiveness was evaluated). Lethal control and night confinement of domestic animals would have no effect on reducing predation, whereas the use of livestock-guarding dogs, fencing, or herdsmen may significantly reduce domestic animal losses. When the effectiveness of each technique to reduce predation was assessed by large and mesocarnivores, fencing significantly reduced predation of domestic animals by the former. Despite little scientifically published material, our findings indicate lethal control would have no effect in reducing animal predation by native carnivores when compared with nonlethal techniques. Our study also indicates the effectiveness may vary depending on the type of carnivore involved in the conflict with livestock activity. The use of an evidence-based framework to measure and assess the differential effectiveness of nonlethal techniques and the use of complementary tools at different spatial and temporal scales must be research priorities to prevent livestock predation while promoting the conservation of carnivores in production-oriented lands as encouraged by the Convention of Biological Diversity.

Pastoralist herding efficiency in dealing with carnivore-livestock conflicts in the eastern Serengeti, Tanzania

ABSTRACTWild carnivores are often involved in conflicts with humans due to their predation on livestock. We investigated the herding efficiency of pastoralists in association with depredation on livestock in the Loliondo game-controlled area (LGCA), northern Tanzania, to identify specific herding practices that may reduce predation occurrence. Randomised face-to-face interviews were employed using semi-structured questionnaires. Our results indicate that all studied livestock herds were tended to by at least one herder. Despite the presence of herders, carnivores were found to attack livestock in half of the observed herds. Female herders experienced more attacks than male herders. African wild dogs and spotted hyenas most frequently attacked the livestock of the Sonjo tribe, whereas leopards and lions most frequently attacked livestock of the Maasai tribe. Herders carrying defensive equipment (knives and spears) reduced the number of successful carnivore attacks in the area. We recommend maintaining and improving the traditional livestock husbandry practices of using herders to reduce carnivore attacks. Moreover, increasing the number of adult male herders per herd and carrying gear might also help reduce such attacks. Using herders can potentially improve economic gains and livelihoods of local people and change their negative attitudes towards wild carnivores.

Vegetation Type Influences Livestock Predation by Leopards: Implications for Conservation in Agro-Ecosystems

Carnivore—livestock conflict has been a driver of human—carnivore conflict since the domestication of ungulates and needs to be addressed to secure the conservation of carnivores. Leopard—livestock conflict is a contentious issue in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve (BMR), South Africa. Little is known about the spatial distribution of livestock losses and the associated management responses by farmers. We investigated the vegetation-specific livestock predation by leopards in the BMR, as well as the consequences for livestock management and biodiversity preservation. Leopard killed livestock in 14 of the 22 vegetation types, of which Groot Valley Thicket, Cockscomb Mountain Fynbos and Baviaanskloof Mountain Fynbos were ‘used’ more than expected. Leopard predation was focused on the properties that bordered the reserve, but constituted a relatively small proportion of livestock losses on these properties. Farmers respond to this actual predation and perceived predation by removing livestock from areas bordering the reserve. Given the high levels of herbivory exerted on the vegetation by livestock, the removal of livestock may create plant refugia from herbivory. Thus, we propose that leopard predation may induce human-mediated behavioural effects on livestock which resembles the behavioural responses of herbivores to ‘landscapes of fear’. Therefore, retaining top predators may assist in the conservation of biodiversity within multi-use landscapes by maintaining predator—prey dynamics and associated top-down processes.

HWC 2003 + 10 Years: Carnivore–Livestock Conflicts, Tourism, Donors, Compensation: What About the Human Dimensions?

Over the last 10 years, we have made significant strides in understanding the technical aspects of human–wildlife conflict mitigation, but the human dimensions aspect still lags far behind. In Kenya, this skewed understanding has resulted in the application of technical solutions to human problems. The reason for this is the tendency of conservationists to take an “ecological” approach to addressing challenges facing African communities living with wildlife. The sociocultural and economic values around livestock do not feature in the thinking of those addressing livestock depredation, yet we now know that the technical and ecological aspects alone are not sufficient. A coherent, indigenous research agenda in the Kenya Wildlife Service will go a long way toward addressing this lacuna. Practitioners should dedicate the next decade to understanding that Africa’s people are not just part of the landscape but are also custodians of wildlife.

Density of Wild Prey Modulates Lynx Kill Rates on Free-Ranging Domestic Sheep

Understanding the factors shaping the dynamics of carnivore–livestock conflicts is vital to facilitate large carnivore conservation in multi-use landscapes. We investigated how the density of their main wild prey, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, modulates individual Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx kill rates on free-ranging domestic sheep Ovis aries across a range of sheep and roe deer densities. Lynx kill rates on free-ranging domestic sheep were collected in south-eastern Norway from 1995 to 2011 along a gradient of different livestock and wild prey densities using VHF and GPS telemetry. We used zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) models including lynx sex, sheep density and an index of roe deer density as explanatory variables to model observed kill rates on sheep, and ranked the models based on their AICc values. The model including the effects of lynx sex and sheep density in the zero-inflation model and the effect of lynx sex and roe deer density in the negative binomial part received most support. Irrespective of sheep density and sex, we found the lowest sheep kill rates in areas with high densities of roe deer. As roe deer density decreased, males killed sheep at higher rates, and this pattern held for both high and low sheep densities. Similarly, females killed sheep at higher rates in areas with high densities of sheep and low densities of roe deer. However, when sheep densities were low females rarely killed sheep irrespective of roe deer density. Our quantification of depredation rates can be the first step towards establishing fairer compensation systems based on more accurate and area specific estimation of losses. This study demonstrates how we can use ecological theory to predict where losses of sheep will be greatest, and can be used to identify areas where mitigation measures are most likely to be needed.

Carnivore-livestock conflicts: determinants of wolf (Canis lupus) depredation on sheep farms in Finland

Wolves (Canis lupus) have recently expanded their distribution range into western and southern Finland, which has not hosted breeding wolves for over 100 years. This has raised concerns and public debate over wolf-livestock conflicts. Between 1998 and 2004 there were 45 wolf attacks on sheep on 34 farms. To assess the risk wolves may pose to sheep husbandry, we used data on depredation, sheep management, landscape structure and moose and wolf populations from continental Finland outside the area of reindeer husbandry to build models of the factors that may predispose sheep farms to wolf depredation. Our results provided evidence that sheep farms with the highest risk of wolf depredation were those located in regions where wolves were abundant. These farms were usually located close to the Russian border where the landscape is a mosaic of forest, wetlands and clear cut areas. These regions are sparsely populated by humans and farms are located far from each other. Finally, we generated probability maps based on generalised additive modelling to predict the risk of wolf predation on livestock in farms of southern Finland.