Carnegie Commission Research Articles

The projected physician surplus reevaluated.

Prologue: Almost two decades ago, the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education declared in a report, “The most serious shortages of professional personnel in any occupation group in the United States are in health services.” In the ensuing years, Congress sharply increased the federal investment in health professional education and, as a result, bolstered the total supply of providers in a spectacular fashion. Now, the conventional wisdom holds that the United States has more physicians than it can afford to support. In this paper, Steven Jacobsen and Alfred Rimm challenge this view held by the Reagan administration and, increasingly, by the American Medical Association (AMA). A Commentary in this issue by Ruth Hanft also questions the notion that America has a physician surplus, to which the leaders of the AMA and the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) respond. Here Jacobsen and Rimm reassess the supply predictions of the Graduate Medical Education National Advisory Committee (GMENAC), adjusting them for changing practice patterns, growing numbers of women entering medical training and practice, new medical school enrollment trends, and number of foreign graduates that continue to enter residency in this country. Their results differ greatly from GMENAC's predictions. Jacobsen, a student of biostatistics and medicine at the Medical College of Wisconsin, is currently pursuing doctoral studies in epidemiology at the University of Illinois in Chicago. Rimm, also of the Medical College of Wisconsin, is a biostatistician and an epidemiologist certified by the American College of Epidemiologists. He holds a doctorate in agriculture and quantitative genetics from Rutgers University, and his background encompasses a wide variety of epidemiological studies, including chemotherapeutic clinical trials at the Roswell Park Cancer Memorial Institute in Buffalo, New York during the 1960s. Currently he is serving on a Health Care Financing Administration committee whose purpose is to rank 5,700 hospitals in the U.S. by quality of care. The research upon which this article is based received the Thomas Hale Ham award from the AAMC in October 1986.

University of Florida Horticulture Programs

Abstract The University of Florida is one of the 10 largest universities in the United States, with more than 35,000 students, 20 colleges andaschools, and 86 interdisciplinary research and education centers, bureaus, and institutes. Fifty-two undergraduate degree programs offer 114 majors, and there are 123 master's and 76 doctoral programs in 87 different departments. Along with Ohio State Univ. and the Univ. of Minnesota, the Univ. of Florida offers more academic programs on a single campus than any of the nation's other universities. The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education ranks it as one of the nation's leading research universities. Moreover, the Univ. of Florida is a member of the prestigious Association of American Universities, which is composed of the 56 leading public and private institutions in North America.

Holland environments as reinforcement systems

Holland's (1973, 1985) theory of vocational choice stipulates that model environments seek toreinforce the characteristic predispositions and attitudes of their corresponding personality types. The results of this longitudinal study of the self-perceptions of more than 2,000 graduates from eight types of colleges and universities (Carnegie Commission, 1971) generally support the validity of this premise. For example, graduates prepared in investigative environments have higher intellectual self-esteem scores and those prepared in artistic environments have higher artistic self-esteem scores, when pre- and postcollege measures are controlled. These general patterns are consistent for graduates from the eight institutional types. The implications of these findings are discussed for those who study the intra- and interinstitutional diversity of colleges and universities and their differential impact on student developmental patterns.

Integration of non-traditional programs into the mainstream of academic institutions

Higher education's efforts to respond to the growing demand for non-traditional programs and services have resulted in the proliferation of external degree programs. The present inquiry examines the status of these programs in traditional institutions. Basing evaluation on the guidelines set forth by the Carnegie Commission for Non-Traditional Study (1973), the author suggests that external programs have not achieved the desired degrees of integration into the academic mainstream. Diverse management and planning approaches that might facilitate institutional adaptation and enhance program strength and viability are explored.

The Accreditation Process as a Factor in the Improvement of Traditionally Black Institutions

Even though accreditation might have had great impact on development of traditionally black colleges and universities, no significant studies have been done on accreditation process of these There have been references to accreditation of black colleges and universities in other contexts, however. For example, a 1971 Carnegie Commission on Higher Education study stressed that the Negro public colleges have shown significant development as measured by regional accreditation.' Another study, conducted by Amanda Asgill,2 assessed perceptions of black and white chief administrators of importance of accreditation. Asgill concluded that traditionally black institutions attributed such great importance to regional accreditation that accrediting agency should weigh seriously possible effects of any sudden change in its policies which could influence future destiny of these institutions. In 1980s, accreditation again has become a significant topic in higher education. At same time, there has emerged renewed interest in role of traditionally black colleges and universities. This article presents findings from a larger study3 that in part investigated role of Middle States Association as a change agent

The American University in a Changing Society: Three ViewsThe Uses of the University. Clark KerrBeyond the Ivory Tower: Social Responsibilities of the Modern University. Derek BokThe University and the Public Interest. A. Bartlett Giamatti

With the fading of the strident rhetoric of the disaffected, civilized rational discourse is once more in vogue on the American campus. But the years of turmoil have left their mark, and the discourse frequently turns inward to focus on the future of an institution-the universitythat has been tested by the fire of dissent and has survived, one hopes, with a heightened sense of purpose and a clearer idea of its responsibilities to society. Among the authoritative and persuasive voices taking part in the continuing dialogue on the role of the university is that of Clark Kerr, former president of the University of California and chairman of the Carnegie Commission and the Carnegie Council on Higher Education, who first analyzed what was happening to American higher education in The Uses of the University, published in 1963. Based on his series of Godkin lectures delivered at Harvard, the book recently was reissued in a third edition that retains the interesting postscript to the 1972 edition and adds a new preface as well as a Postscript-1982. In this last portion, Kerr comments on how the unrest of the 1960s and 1970s affected higher education in general and the research university in particular. He also affords us some insights into his own thought processes and the ways his perceptions of the university have changed since The Uses of the University first appeared. Even with the advantage of hindsight, it isn't easy to pick flaws in Kerr's 20-year-old assessment of the university and its place in modern society. In 1963, Kerr's appeal to an audience both in and out of

Scholarly Significance of the Carnegie Commission Sponsored Research Reports

The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, with financial support from the Carnegie Corporation, established the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education in 1967 to make a systematic appraisal of higher education and to suggest recommendations for its development during the last third of this century. The publications that flowed from the Carnegie Commission during its existence were of three types: commission reports (n = 21), sponsored research reports (n = 64), and technical reports (n = 20). Evaluations of the Carnegie Commission publications ranged from assessments made by individuals [2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 21] to a comparison of the successes and failures of nine national commission reports on education [7]. Not surprisingly, the individual assessments praised the work of the Carnegie Commission [3], or criticized it [9], or combined praise with criticism [10]. Longanecker and Klein [7], however, asked expert respondents to rate each of the following nine national commission reports: (1) First Report of the Assembly on University Goals and Governance, (2) Final Report of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, (3) Report on the Management and Financing of Colleges of the Committee for Economic Development, (4) Final Report of the National Board on Graduate Education, (5) Report of the National Commission on Financing of Post-Secondary Education, (6) President's Commission on Campus Unrest, (7) Report on Higher Education Task Force, (8) The Second Newman Report: National Policy and Higher Education,

Scholarly Significance of the Carnegie Commission Sponsored Research Reports: A Citation Analysis

Scholarly Significance of the Carnegie Commission Sponsored Research Reports: A Citation Analysis

The Voting Behavior of American Political Scientists: the 1980 Presidential Election

A SMALL FRACTION of the voting studies conducted during the past three decades focused on the electoral behavior of American political scientists. In 1959, Henry Turner, Charles McClintock, and Charles Spaulding used survey methods to explore the partisan orientations of a random sample of members of the American Political Science Association (APSA). Their findings (Turner, McClintock, and Spaulding, 1963: 650-65) sustained the conventional wisdom that their subjects were (74 percent) Democrats and led them to discount the influence of family and other customary explanatory variables of partisan choice. Instead, they concluded that the partisan preference of political scientists was largely and upon their evaluations of the policies and leadership of the party and on the information and attitudes gained in the political science profession (ibid., 665). A decade later (1970), Turner and Carl Hetrick replicated and extended the 1959 study. As before, the Association proved to be largely a 'one-party' organization (ibid., 374). Seventy-three percent of their respondents were Democrats (virtually the same percentage as before). These were also more politically active than Republican colleagues who, in turn, were more involved than independents. Turner and Hetrick presented additional evidence that adult socialization was more important than childhood socialization in the formation of partisan loyalties and political attitudes. In particular, they pointed to the influence of professional knowledge and the influence of colleagues. They concluded that political scientists perceived marked differences in the policies of the two parties and exercised conscious value judgments in making partisan choices (ibid., 374). In short, the political behavior of political scientists appeared more rational to them than did that of the general electorate. Articles by Everett Carll Ladd and Seymour Martin Lipset added depth to these findings. Two were based upon the 1969 Carnegie Commission Survey of students, faculty, and administrators. Responding to charges of conservatism within the discipline, they demonstrated that American political scientists were pervasively liberal in comparison with the general electorate and other academic groups (Ladd and Lipset, 1971: 135-44). In a subsequent essay, they argued that the belief systems of

Career Programs in Higher Education

publications were nonexistent. I sent questionnaires to most of our colleges and universities, inviting them to provide information on their new programs or revised programs. This article summarizes the results of that research and draws upon additional information supplied by the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), American Federation of Musicians (AFM), Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Information for the Allies: Office of War Information Libraries in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa

In 1942 the U.S. Office of War Information (OWI) was created by the federal government to increase domestic understanding of America's war effort and to facilitate the flow of American information overseas. As part of this operation, fourteen information libraries were established throughout allied and neutral territory. The OWI librarians sent to Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa arrived in those countries at critical periods in their library development, since all three nations were in the process of reevaluating their library services in the light of recent critical Carnegie Commission reports. By offering strong models of modern information service and by energetically supporting emerging local movements for tax-supported public libraries, three OWI librarians in particular made contributions to library development in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa that endure to this day.

Some Perspective on Hard Times

The Review of Higher Education Fall 1982. Volume 6. No. 1 Pages 69 to 78 Copyright © 1982 Association for the Study of Higher Education All Rights Reserved SOME PERSPECTIVE ON HARD TIMES Joseph F. Kauffman Our Association is not so old that one can refer to a “ tradition” in pres­ idential addresses. We are glad to be together again each year and the As­ sociation president’s address usually reflects the incumbent’s scholarly or professional interest. It may be a paper on one’s ongoing research or a portion of a book that one is developing. At least that is my recollection of the addresses of my two most recent predecessors. My own career in higher education has combined practitioner with pro­ fessor—or vice versa—but whatever the nature of my responsibilities, 1have always valued most highly my membership in this Association and its fore­ runner, the Association of Professors of Higher Education (APHE). If 1may be permitted a personal note, it was always my aspiration to spend the latter part of my professional life free of administrative duties so that 1 could attempt to be professor/scholar—or at least be more reflective and contemplative about our field. 1 seized that opportunity in 1973 when 1 left a college presidency to return to the UW-Madison as professor. (In fact, I was on a panel at the APHE program in Chicago, in 1974, speaking on “ The Practitioner As Professor.” ) When 1 agreed to have my name placed on the ASHE ballot in 1979, I had no idea that 1 would ever be in the position l now hold. If I had known, I would not have accepted the opportunity to serve ASHE in this capacity for it has been difficult for me to meet fully all of my responsibilities to the membership. Although I still teach one course each semester, and work with a dozen Ph.D. candidates, I am unable to find time for studying or scholarly pursuits. I have returned to the “ administrative trenches,” as one reviewer of my last book described it. (What keeps me going is the knowledge that, as a sexagenarian, I cannot keep doing this much longer!) As the Executive Vice President of one of the largest University Systems Presidential address delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Washington, D.C. March 2, 1982. Joseph F. Kauffman is Executive Vice President of the University of Wisconsin System and Professor of Educational Administration. University of Wisconsin-Madison. 69 70 The Review of Higher Education in the United States, I do have an existential perspective that I would like to share with you this evening. 1 think my experience is transferable to others as well—thus I will generalize from it. The one overwhelming concern that dominates all others in higher education today is MONEY. It preoccupies Deans, Vice Presidents, and Presidents as well as faculty. It affects all thinking about the future, as well as the present. (Those who are not here tonight to hear this, probably could not get travel funds or afford to come to Washington at their own expense!) The subject of MONEY dominates concerns with student enrollments, tuition policy, the Federal and State role in higher education, the who pays—who benefits debate, admissions standards, arguments over quality, faculty morale, col­ lective bargaining, governance, libraries, the new technology, the future of graduate education and even issues of academic freedom. It is all pervasive. As one who chose education as a field of endeavor to avoid the hurly burly values of the marketplace, it is disconcerting to find money as the dominating force on each agenda. 1am more than ever resolved that in my future teaching of would be educational leaders, there will be a proper concern with re­ sources—their acquisition, management, allocation and defense. That can no longer be left solely to a business office! It was a decade ago that Earl Cheit (1971) used the term “ the new depression in higher education,” to describe the general erosion of the financial position of a selected group of institutions he had studied under the auspices of the Carnegie Commission on Higher...

Academic Advising in Higher Education: A Developmental Approach for College Students of All Ages

In 1969, the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education sponsored the largest survey of academic opinion ever undertaken. The survey included 70,000 undergraduates, 30,000 graduate students, and 60,000 faculty members. After analysis of this monumental collection of data, the Commission recommended that enhanced emphasis should be placed on advising as an increasingly important aspect of higher education.' A theme throughout the voluminous reports of the Commission's work, higher education needs to humanize programs, with the explicit intent of maximizing the individual student's development. Mash responds to this particular theme by pointing out that effective academic advising can and should be the heart of a developmental approach to the student. Since individual development represents a goal of adult education according to Knowles,' Tough,+ and others, I think it appropriate to define and to describe a process of academic advising which incorporates strategies aimed a t traditional college age students and adults.

A Public Trust: The Report of the Carnegie Commission on the Future of Public Broadcasting.New York: Bantam Books, 1979. 401 pp

A Public Trust: The Report of the Carnegie Commission on the Future of Public Broadcasting.<i>New York: Bantam Books, 1979. 401 pp</i>

The impact of new medical schools and the issues of increasing enrollment

Is there an impending physician surplus? The authors' position is that there is an impending surplus. Health planners must be cognizant of this eventuality. The federal government as one of the major authors of health policy guidelines is currently reacting to the surplus question. But federal reaction can at times be too swift, too dramatic, and not in the best interests of those who must maintain previous investments. Therefore, both the supporters of health-related educational institutions and those who are responsible for program implementation must attempt to define and reach a common understanding of the situation. Policy development and planning activities must be collaborative efforts that emphasize involvement. In this paper, the authors present a brief review of federal policies relative to the production of physicians and other health professionals. It is hoped that one can better understand the current situation and more effectively plan the future if past developments are included. This should lead to a comprehensive analysis from a common perspective. The involvement of the Carnegie Commission (Carnegie Council) is also included for the same reasons. All analyses lead to the current situation and the authors' position that there is an impending physician surplus. The central problem has shifted from physician supply to the problem of physician maldistribution, both geographically and by specialty.

Biology Education: What Next?

College enrollments are expected to peak around 1982 at about 13.6 million students and to decline throughout the remainder of that decade. The number of students enrolled for degree credit in all types of colleges will reach a maximum of 11 million in 1980, and the subsequent modest growth will be due to increases in the numbers of students not in degree programs. In the two-year colleges, enrollment will increase through 1985 when it will account for 31% of the students in degree programs and an even larger percentage of the nondegree enrollment. Public colleges will enroll increasing proportions of students at the expense of the private colleges. In 1960, only 60% of degree students attended public colleges; by 1985, 80% will attend public institutions. The reasons students go to college are also changing. First, improved earning capacity no longer provides a strong incentive for attending college. Based on a 1970 report of the Carnegie Commission (Hecht and Traub 1974), lifetime earnings of a college graduate exceed those of a high school graduate by approximately $60,000-about the equivalent of the cost of college and the foregone earnings. Second, by 1980, a college education will offer less assurance of getting a job commensurate with one's educational attainment. By that time college graduates will comprise 20% of the civilian labor force; buf only 15% of the jobs will require a college degree (Best 1978). We need not limit this discussion to students pursuing degrees, for all of our educational institutions abound with students who have what Washington Post columnist, William Raspberry (1978b) calls great and unrealistic expectations. He asserts that we teach skills but fail to teach young people what those skills are likely to produce in income. Many students expect to finish a vocational program and quickly land a $25,000-a-year job. A few even prefer to remain on welfare rather than to work for less than the salary they expected. Changes in life plans will have farreaching effects on what parts of one's life are spent in school. Some futurists believe that the linear life plan-childhood, education, and employment-is becoming obsolete. The cyclic life plan (Best 1978) suggests that people might enter the work force in the teen years, work for several years, return to school for a year or two, and continue to alternate work and school throughout a lifetime. These trends seem to indicate that the student population will become increasingly diverse in interests and needs at the same time it is decreasing in size. We will be confronted with greater competition for a smaller number of faculty positions. Those of us who remain in teaching will be challenged by the task of serving this diverse population of students.

Computer‐Based Education: a case for planned culture change in the school

AbstractThe paper relates the uptake of computer‐based education in schools to the socio‐cultural pattern operating in the school.It is suggested that innovational disseminators must become involved in the behaviour and communication pattern of the school if they are to successfully introduce their innovation. The need for the user to perceive personal benefits and the need to involve local leadership in introducing an innovation is emphasized.A 1972 Carnegie Commission Report suggests that the education industry is currently sitting on the brink of its first technological revolution in five centuries—the revolution of the new electronics. According to this report, three major revolutions in education have already taken place.The first three revolutions were marked by the introduction and adaptation of the written word; the use of textbooks that followed the invention of movable type; and the implementation of universal public education. The fourth revolution can facilitate attainment of universal public education by introducing technology associated with electronic communication and data processing systems. However, few educational institutions have availed themselves of this opportunity.This paper deals with general concepts of planned culture change that could reduce education's resistance to technological change. Ethnographic parallels are utilized to demonstrate the use of the principles of culture change and technological innovation in the culture of the schools.

The Malaise of Tenure Decisions: A Proposal for Senior Faculty Reassignment at Sixty

The well-intentioned effort of Congress to prolong the usefulness and dignity of the last years of senior citizens has everywhere worked a hardship on junior citizens, but nowhere more cruelly than in the academic profession. The legislation that, after 1982, extends the teaching life of tenured faculty to seventy comes at an awkward time. The advancing age profiles of faculty in nearly all universities have meant fewer and fewer tenure promotions during the past decade, and now the rate must dip even further if some reasonable balance is to be kept between tenured and untenured faculty. Faculty age projections across the country prepared by the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education a few years ago (before the current legislation was in force) show that the post-forty component of college and university faculties, which accounted for 55.9 per cent in 1970, would rise to 62.1 per cent by 1980 and 87.5 per cent by 1990; the percentage of teachers under thirty-five, which stood at 28.2 per cent in 1970, would fall to 21.4 per cent in 1980 and a mere 3.8 per cent in 19901 The implications of these age profiles are chilling not less so because they are projections, not firm forecasts. Nor is there much comfort in our knowing how the dilemma has arisen: undergraduate enrollment more than doubled from the late 1950's to the late 1960's (from approximately 300,000 entrants to 700,000) and has very nearly doubled again during the past decade. The younger faculty members recruited in the 1960's and early 1970's to deal with this soaring enrollment itself the consequence of the postwar baby boom'7 are the aging component of projected faculties in the 1980's and

Collective bargaining and five key higher education issues

Collective bargaining for faculty in two-year and four-year colleges and universities has become a major issue in the 1970s in American higher education. If students and student confrontations were the focus of attention in the 1960s, faculty and faculty unrest may become the page one story during the 1970s and 1980s. Colleges and universities have become more and more involved in developing budgets which do not even permit adequate cost of living increases to say nothing about catch up equalization. As accountability is emphasized, as public confidence in higher education remains questionable, as enrollments become stabilized, and as faculty mobility is restricted, possibly, faculty will begin to consider collective bargaining more favorably than ever before. Collective bargaining is no longer regarded as a phenomenon appearing suddenly and likely to disappear as quickly. No longer is it a matter of wondering whether collective bargaining will last, but rather one of understanding the process and assessing the pros and cons. The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education recommended: State laws, where they do not now permit it, should provide faculty members in public institutions the opportunity of obtaining collective bargaining rights. One alternative under such laws should be choice of no bargaining unit.' As of April 1977, according to Mortimer,2 there were approximately 20-23 states that permitted faculty collective bargaining. Of the 550 campuses (involving 327 institutions) with collective bargaining, approximately 60 percent were community colleges. He estimated that by 1980 approximately 40 percent of all public two-year and four-year colleges will have collective bargaining. Although collective bargaining was introduced to higher education no more than about eleven years ago, the origin of the idea traces to the organization of the

Open admissions does not kill colleges

Theodore L. Gross, dean of humanities at City College of New York, would have us believe that open admissions killed his institution.1 A program which came to life during the close of the turbulent sixties now faces a sharp attack in the reactionary seventies. It is tragic that programs of reform such as open admissions should depend on political and economic climates for their existence. Nonetheless, it is most important to look objectively at open admissions and to determine whether it kills colleges. Roots of the open admissions concept go deep into our history. The egalitarian motive was a basic ingredient of the 1862 Morrill Act, which set the stage for universal higher education by establishing landgrant colleges. Between 1900 and 1970, the proportion of 18to 21-year olds attending college increased from 4 percent to 40 percent.2 World War II produced far-reaching reforms in college admissions by way of the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) and the post-war GI Bill. For example, ASTP flooded American colleges with students, regardless of qualifications, to prepare them to play an active role in the war effort. After the war, the GI Bill sent masses of veterans to college to help them re-enter society with jobs and meaningful lives. A 1973 Carnegie Commission study concluded that the quality of higher education had been generally maintained since World War II and the lowering of admissions standards had not affected adversely the quality of higher learning. In 1960, the California state college system implemented one of the first major open admissions programs in the United States. By the late 1960s, 68 percent of Califoria's high school graduates were entering college; no evidence exists that its system of higher education has suffered as a result of open admissions. The