Carica Cv Research Articles

Modifications in gene expression and phenolic compounds content by methyl jasmonate and fungal elicitors in Ficus carica. Cv. Siah hairy root cultures

BackgroundOne of the most effective strategies to increase phytochemicals production in plant cultures is elicitation. In the present study, we studied the effect of abiotic and biotic elicitors on the growth, key biosynthetic genes expression, antioxidant capacity, and phenolic compounds content in Rhizobium (Agrobacterium) rhizogenes-induced hairy roots cultures of Ficus carica cv. Siah.MethodsThe elicitors included methyl jasmonate (MeJA) as abiotic elicitor, culture filtrate and cell extract of fungus Piriformospora indica as biotic elicitors were prepared to use. The cultures of F. carica hairy roots were exposed to elicitores at different time points. After elicitation treatments, hairy roots were collected, and evaluated for growth index, total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoids (TFC) content, antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, DPPH and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power, FRAP assays), expression level of key phenolic/flavonoid biosynthesis genes, and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of some main phenolic compounds in comparison to control.ResultsElicitation positively or negatively affected the growth, content of phenolic/flavonoid compounds and DPPH and FRAP antioxidant activities of hairy roots cultures in depending of elicitor concentration and exposure time. The maximum expression level of chalcone synthase (CHS: 55.1), flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase (F3’H: 34.33) genes and transcription factors MYB3 (32.22), Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH: 45.73) was induced by MeJA elicitation, whereas the maximum expression level of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL: 26.72) and UDP-glucose flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT: 27.57) genes was obtained after P. indica culture filtrate elicitation. The P. indica elicitation also caused greatest increase in the content of gallic acid (5848 µg/g), caffeic acid (508.2 µg/g), rutin (43.5 µg/g), quercetin (341 µg/g), and apigenin (1167 µg/g) phenolic compounds.ConclusionsThis study support that elicitation of F. carica cv. Siah hairy roots can be considered as an effective biotechnological method for improved phenolic/flavonoid compounds production, and of course this approach requires further research.

First Report of Rust Caused by Phakopsora nishidana on Creeping Fig, Ficus pumila, in South Africa.

Phakopsora nishidana has recently been reported as the causal organism of rust on edible fig, Ficus carica in South Africa (SA) (Boshoff et al. 2022). This contradicted reports by Doidge (1927, 1950) and Verwoerd (1929) who listed Cerotelium fici as the causal organism of the disease in SA. Similarities in urediniospore morphology and differing taxonomic interpretations most likely contributed to the use of both pathogen names as the causal agents for fig rust (Boshoff et al. 2022; Padamsee and McKenzie 2024). In January 2023 rust was commonly observed on nursery specimens of creeping fig, Ficus pumila, a popular evergreen and fast-growing garden plant in SA. Ficus pumila is native to southern China, Indochina, and eastern Asia but has been introduced to many countries worldwide (https://powo.science.kew.org/ accessed 20 March 2024). The F. pumila rust isolate collected in Somerset West (34°07'00.70"S, 18°52'41.75"E; Western Cape (WC) province) was identified using the sequenced 5.8S rRNA-ITS2-28S rRNA locus. When used in a BLAST analysis, this F. pumila isolate (GenBank accession number OR835538) shared the best homology with the Vermont P. nishidana isolate (34°24'33.37"S, 19°08'59.24"E) (MZ047090; e-value 0.0, 99.7% identity, 1400/1404 bp) reported on edible fig by Boshoff et al. (2022). Other P. nishidana isolates with excellent homology were KY764080 (e-value 0.0, 99.8% identity, 1012/1014 bp), KY764081 (e-value 0.0, 99% identity, 882/885 bp) and MF580676 (e-value 0.0, 99.3% identity, 981/988 bp). Accessions were used in a phylogenetic study that included four other rust samples collected from F. carica trees in Somerset West, WC (OR835534; 34°03'37.26"S, 18°51'02.18"E), Onrus River, WC (OR835535; 34°24'43.10"S, 19°09'57.99"E), Elgin, WC (OR835536; 34°14'31.37"S, 19°03'05.38"E), and Bloemfontein, Free State province (OR835537; 29°05'05.1"S 26°09'09.5"E). Reference sequences were as described in Boshoff et al. (2022). Despite limited variation, all six South African isolates, including the F. pumila isolate, grouped with the three P. nishidana reference isolates, but separate from the three P. myrtacearum isolates collected from eucalyptus trees (Maier et al. 2016). Uredinia on F. pumila leaves were mostly hypophyllous and surrounded by a halo of brown, necrotic tissue. On the upper leaf surface, the lesions appeared as small, dark leaf spots with infrequent sporulation. Urediniospores were echinulate, mostly obovoid or elliptical and their cell walls pale-yellow to yellowish-brown. The mean width and length of urediniospores were 16.7 x 21.3 µm. No telia were observed. Applying standard rust inoculation and incubation procedures (Boshoff et al. 2022), F. pumila plants inoculated with P. nishidana isolate PREM63073 produced sporulating uredinia on the abaxial surface of leaves. Likewise, inoculation of F. carica cv. Kadota leaves with the F. pumila isolate OR835538 yielded sporulating lesions containing urediniospores typical of P. nishidana, on the lower surface. Based on both the DNA sequence data and controlled infection studies, our study confirmed the host status of F. pumila for P. nishidana. The occurrence of rust on creeping fig plants in nurseries, the evergreen status of the creeper, and thus the potential to harbor the pathogen during winter, are likely to contribute to the spread of fig rust in SA.

Phenolic profiles, antioxidant capacities and flavour volatiles in fig (Ficus carica L.) juices from five cultivars fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus acidophilus

SummaryThe purpose of this study was to investigate the fermentation characteristics of five varieties of fig juices (Ficus carica cv. Siluhongyu, Siluhuangjin, Silufeicui, Jinaofen and Fengchanhuang) by two select strains (Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus acidophilus), based on the changes of physicochemical parameters, bioactive components, antioxidant activities and flavour volatiles. Viable counts were above 9.5 log CFU mL−1 throughout the fermentation process, indicating that fig juices were suitable substrates for strain proliferation. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were significantly enhanced during fermentation, particularly with Siluhuangjin by L. plantarum and Silufeicui by L. acidophilus, exhibiting the highest total phenolic (465 mg GAE L−1) and total flavonoid contents (152 mg RE L−1), respectively. Accordingly, antioxidant activities based on SOD, DPPH, ABTS and FRAP methods were significantly improved after fermentation (P < 0.05). SOD and ABTS were positively correlated with contents of protocatechuic acid and caffeic acid, respectively (P < 0.05). Furthermore, alcohols, ketones and terpenoids contents were increased, while aldehydes content was decreased significantly after fermentation (P < 0.05), suggesting the improved flavour characteristics of fermented fig juices.

Response of young fig (Ficus carica cv. Sarılop) trees to different irrigation levels in a semi-arid mediterranean environment

Response of young fig (Ficus carica cv. Sarılop) trees to different irrigation levels in a semi-arid mediterranean environment

The Incorporation of Coconut Water and Banana Homogenate in The Regeneration of Fig (Ficus carica L.) cv. Violette de Solliès

The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is from the family of Moraceae and is commonly cultivated for its fruits, which are well-known for their exceptional nutritional and medicinal properties. The addition of organic additives functions to supply carbon sources and other essential vitamins, minerals, and natural growth regulators to support the growth of explants. The present study aims to assess the effects of coconut water and banana homogenate in the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. Violette de Solliès (VDS). In vitro shoot, explants were cultured in full-strength MS medium without sucrose but with 1.0 mg/L BAP and different concentrations of coconut water and banana homogenate. Results indicated that MS media with 200 mL/L coconut water resulted in the highest number of induced shoots (3.03 ± 0.122) and shoot height (1.005 ± 0.022 cm) compared to other treatments with coconut water, whereas MS media supplemented with 200 g/L banana homogenate produced the highest number of induced shoots (3.00 ± 0.144) and the highest shoot height (0.958 ± 0.020 cm) of all the banana homogenate treatments. In conclusion, coconut water and banana homogenate are suitable alternatives for carbon sources and other organic growth factors contributing to the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. VDS.

Rapid In Vitro Propagation of Fig (Ficus carica L.) ‘Violette de Solliès’ Supported by Molecular and Microscopy Analyses

Ficus carica L. is a common fig that is an incredibly nutritional fruit, well-known for its medicinal and economic values. This study aims to establish an efficient protocol for the mass propagation of fig plantlets (Ficus carica L.) for the cultivar ‘Violette de Solliès’. Surface-sterilized shoot-tip explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different concentrations of cytokinins (6-benzylaminopurine, BAP; thidiazuron, TDZ; kinetin, Kn; and zeatin, Zea). Induced shoots were rooted on Woody Plant Medium (WPM) with different concentrations of auxins (naphthalene-acetic acid, NAA; indole-3-acetic acid, IAA; and indole-3-butyric acid, IBA). Rooted explants were acclimatized in eight different soil substrates prior to cultivation in a commercial plot. The propagated plantlets were analyzed for genetic stability and clonal fidelity using RAPD and SCoT molecular markers, whereas scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed to observe the stomata morphology of post-acclimatized plants. MS media supplemented with 5.0 mg/L BAP was the optimal treatment for multiple shoot induction (15.20 ± 1.03 shoots), whereas the highest percentage of rooting (93.33%) was achieved in WPM supplemented with 3.0 mg/L IBA. Plantlets were successfully acclimatized in biochar soil with a survival rate of 100%. RAPD and SCoT analysis showed no polymorphism occurrences across six subculture cycles, whereas observations via SEM indicated normal stomata structures on the leaves of acclimatized plantlets. This study documents an efficient micropropagation protocol for Ficus carica cv. ‘Violette de Solliès’ for the production of uniformed and true-to-type plant stocks suitable for commercial propagation.

Callus Induction of Fig (Ficus carica cv. Violette de Soillès) via Thin Cell Layer Technique

Ficus carica L. is a fruit-bearing fig plant belonging to the Moraceae family. The fig fruit is known for its health benefits with high levels of fibre, vitamins, sugars and minerals. The leaves are also used for diabetes, cholesterol reduction and skin disorders. Previous reports have documented on the different in vitro callus induction methods of F. carica via plant tissue culture. Thin cell layer (TCL) has been previously established for the micropropagation of many plant species, utilising thin sections of explants in this method to induce callus. The current study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of the TCL technique in the callus induction of F. carica cv. Violette de Soillès. Stem explants with a diameter of 3.0 to 4.0 mm were excised into the thickness of approximately 0.5 to 0.8 mm and inoculated on MS media supplemented with BAP and NAA at different concentrations. The results indicated that MS media supplemented with 1.0 mg/L BAP and 0.5 mg/L NAA, and 2.0 mg/L BAP and 0.5 mg/L NAA induced the highest amount of semi-friable callus with 100% callus induction rate. The current study reported on the induction of callus from the Violette de Soillès cultivar via TCL, which in future, can be explored for shoot organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis and cell suspension culture.

THE EFFECTS OF BANANA, POTATO, AND COCONUT WATER IN THE REGENERATION OF Ficus carica cv. Japanese BTM 6

Fig (Ficus carica L.) belongs to the family of Moraceae and its fruits are known to be nutritious to the human diet. Organic additives function as an alternative to replace conventional carbon sources besides containing other nutritional components required for plant growth. This study aims to evaluate the effects of organic additives incorporated in culture media for the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. Japanese BTM6. In vitro shoots were cultured in MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/L of BAP without sucrose and with different concentrations of organic additives (potato, banana and coconut water). MS medium supplemented with 20 g of sucrose and 1 mg/L of BAP (positive control) showed the highest number of shoots (2.45 ± 0.16), shoot height (4.02 ± 0.18 cm) and number of leaves (8.33 ± 0.44). However, the incorporation of coconut water was observed to also support the induction of shoots, shoot height and leaves. Treatment of 200 mL/L of coconut water was found to significantly improve the number of leaves (5.08 ± 0.81 leaves per explant) in comparison to other organic additives. The study concludes that coconut water can be a feasible alternative as carbon source in the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. Japanese BTM6.

An efficient micropropagation protocol for Ficus carica cv. Golden Orphan suitable for mass propagation

Fig ( Ficus carica L.) is from the Moraceae family and is rich in essential nutrients, natural fiber and vitamins. The Golden Orphan cultivar is a yellow fig that is sweet, firm and can thrive in tropical climates. Current conventional propagation methods for the multiplication of plant stocks were found to be less efficient in producing healthy plant stocks. Micropropagation offers an alternative in the production of plant stocks resembling the quality of mother plants. The current study aims to fine tune the micropropagation protocol of the Golden Orphan cultivar for efficient production of plant stocks. Sterile nodal bud explants were subjected to different media treatments, carbon source and combinations of auxin and cytokinin. Rooting of explants was induced in auxin and rooted explants were acclimatized in cocopeat. The optimal basal medium for shoot elongation was Murashige and Skoog (MS) Medium, whereas 20 g/L sucrose resulted in the highest shoot length (2.00 ± 0.22 cm) facilitating the production of nodal segments for subsequent multiplication. The highest shoot induction (4.15 ± 0.43 shoots/explant) was observed in the treatment of 0.8 mg/L 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP), whereas the combination of 0.8 mg/L BAP and 0.5 mg/L indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) resulted in the highest shoot length (2.23 ± 0.09 cm). Treatment of 0.4 mg/L indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) produced the optimal percentage of rooting (83.33%) whereas acclimatization with cocopeat resulted in maximum survival rate. The present study has successfully optimised the crucial aspects of micropropagation for the Golden Orphan cultivar suitable for rapid plant stock production. • The establishment of micropropagation protocol for Ficus carica cv. Golden Orphan. • High multiplication rate in basal medium, minimal amount of sucrose and cytokinin. • Maximum acclimatization efficiency in cocopeat. • Acclimatized plants successfully produced fruits that resembles mother plants.

Antiproliferative effect of Ficus carica latex on cancer cell lines is not solely linked to peroxidase-like activity of ficin

IntroductionFicus carica L. latex is known to have antiproliferative effects attributed to its ficin content. This study was designed to measure the antiproliferative effects of F. carica latex collected from two cultivars of Anatolian F. carica trees and explore whether the difference observed is attributable to the ficin enzyme activities of the latexes. MethodsThe latexes collected from widely cultivated two cultivars, F. carica cv. Sari Lop (SL-FL) and cv. Aydin Black (AB-FL), were applied on human prostate (PC3) and colon (HT-29) cancer cell lines. Pro-apoptotic effect of both latexes was measured on the sensitive cell line, HT-29. Peroxidase-like activity of ficin in the F. carica latexes was measured spectrophotometrically through colorimetric assay. ResultsBoth latexes showed dose- and time-dependent toxicity on the cell lines. HT-29 was more sensitive than PC3 based on the IC-50 values. AB-FL showed significantly higher toxicity on the cells than SL-FL (P<0.05). Also, 72 h AB-FL treatment at 40 μg/ml induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells by 10-fold compared to the control while SL-FL induced apoptosis by 2-fold. No statistically significant difference was observed in peroxidase-like activity of ficin between the SL-FL and AB-FL (P=0.85). ConclusionThe difference in the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of two F. carica latexes could not be linked solely to ficin activity. This suggests that other constituents of the latex might also be responsible for the cytotoxic and apoptotic properties.

Non-destructive leaf area estimation of Fig (Ficus carica L.) cv. Iraqi grown in different root zone spatial limitation and controlled porosity level under greenhouse condition

Leaf area (LA) is associated with many agronomic and physiological processes including growth, photosynthesis, transpiration, photon interception, energy balance and yield potential of the plant. Accurate, rapid and non-destructive leaf area estimation is a useful subject of study for the fields of applied plant science especially with potted plants. However, till date there is lack of information available on Fig (Ficus carica L.) cv. Iraqi grown in containers under different root zone spatial limitation and controlled porosity level. Thus, this study aims to determine the effect of both factors on leaf area of the crop. Determining the individual LA of F. carica cv. Iraqi involves measurements of leaf parameters such as length (L) and width (W), or some combinations of these parameters. The widest part of the foliage was taken as leaf width (W) and leaf length (L) was defined as the distance between the two furthest points (from lamina tip to the point of petiole intersection along the midrib) of the foliage. The length (L) and width (W) of each leaf will be measured by using a leaf area meter having a sensor and read-out unit which calibrated to 0.01 cm 2. There is significant interaction was observed for each treatment. It can be concluded that application of the right root zone and porosity level gave positive effect on leaf area of F. carica cv. Iraqi grown under greenhouse condition.

Rapid and non-destructive leaf chlorophyll estimation of Fig (Ficus carica L.) cv. Iraqi grown on different root zone spatial limitation and controlled porosity level under greenhouse condition

The estimation of chlorophyll content in leaves by the chlorophyll meter (SPAD 502) is more favourable than by the extraction method for studies on photosynthesis or senescence where the total chlorophyll is estimated on the same leaf over time. However, till date there is lack of information available on leaf chlorophyll content of Fig (Ficus carica L.) cv. Iraqi grown in containers under different root zone spatial limitation and controlled porosity level. Hence, this study aim to determine the effect of both factors on leaf chlorophyll content of the crop. The experiment was design in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. The Soil-Plant Analyses Development (SPAD) chlorophyll meter (Minolta Camera Co., Ltd., Japan), has been used for instantly measuring the amount of chlorophyll present in plant leaves. Based on the results, the application of Mix 3 (50% sand: 50% clay) with high root zone spatial gave the highest chlorophyll content compared to other treatment. The application of the right root zone and porosity level may gave positive effect on leaf chlorophyll content of F. carica cv. Iraqi grown under greenhouse condition.

Single and combined decontamination effects of power-ultrasound, peroxyacetic acid and sodium chloride sanitizing treatments on Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus and Penicillium expansum inoculated dried figs

Microbial contaminations and related issues are causing serious economic losses to the global trade of dried figs. A significant amount of dried figs are rejected at the customs gates after legally required analyses, which in turn brings several problems covering the destruction of foods, environmental hazards, and food safety issues. In the present study, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, and Penicillium expansum inoculated (107 CFU/g) dried figs (Ficus carica cv. Sarılop) were subjected to sanitation treatments using ultrasound application (US; 100–600 W), peroxyacetic acid (PAA; 40–200 mg/L) and sodium chloride (NaCl; 4–12%); separately and/or in combinations using a central composite design by response surface methodology. In case of combined (dual/triple) treatments, the optimum process conditions were [US: 527 W, PAA: 148 mg/L], [US: 527 W, NaCl: 11.0%], [PAA: 108 mg/L, NaCl: 10.6%], [US: 203 W, PAA: 89 mg/L, NaCl: 10.4%]. Microbial decontamination by combined US and PAA showed 3.35, 0.93, and 0.90 log CFU/g while the US, PAA, and NaCl combination showed 3.09, 0.82, and 0.98 log CFU/g for E. coli, B. cereus, and P. expansum, respectively. The triple combination was found better for microbial decontamination as it consumed less US power in addition to less comparative concentrations of PAA and NaCl.

Comparison of Dried ʻSabzʼ fig (Ficus carica cv. Sabz) Harvesting, Drying, Disinfection, and Storage Methods

ABSTRACT Sabz fig cultivar has the highest yield and quality of dried fig fruits among Iranian fig genotypes. The quality of dried figs is affected by harvesting, drying, disinfection, and storage methods, while the combined effect of existing methods has not yet been determined. The aim of this study was to compare these methods and to introduce suitable operations to maintain quality, reduce losses, and microbial contamination in dried fig. This study was performed using a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design with factors of harvesting method at four levels, drying method at two levels, and disinfection and storage method at six levels. Results showed that traditional harvesting of semi-dried fruits on nets installed under the tree (T/N) was the best method to reduce total losses (damaged, deformed, premature, and waste fruits) up to 0.1%. Of course, shaker harvesting was not suitable for Sabz cultivar fruits. Harvesting on net and drying with a specific solar-dryer (SSD) reduced the microbial contamination of dried figs by 3.7% and helped to maintain the skin color quality (yellow) by up to 26.1%. Heat disinfection of dried figs and cold storage (HC) to reduce microbial contamination up to 2.4% was effective, but it was moderate in maintaining color quality and sensory value. It was concluded that the T/N, SSD, and HC were the best harvesting, drying, and disinfection and storage methods, respectively.

Deficiencias nutrimentales inducidas en higuera cv. Neza en condiciones hidropónicas

La higuera (Ficus carica L.) es uno de los árboles más antiguo del mundo, produce frutos con alto contenido nutricional y se utiliza con fines medicinales. En la actualidad, este cultivo ha tenido mucha importancia en México, por eso se planteó esta investigación que tuvo como objetivo: analizar las deficiencias nutrimentales inducidas en plantas de higuera Ficus carica cv. Neza en condiciones de hidroponía mediante la técnica del elemento faltante. Para llevarla a cabo, se prepararon seis soluciones, una con todos los iones y cinco con un elemento nutrimental faltante. El experimento se planteó bajo un diseño completamente al azar con seis tratamientos (solución completa y cinco de ellos sin un macronutrimento: nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio, calcio y magnesio) con cinco repeticiones. Se evaluaron variables de crecimiento: número de hojas, altura, diámetro del tallo, número de frutos y área foliar. Además, se realizaron análisis químicos del tejido para confirmar la deficiencia nutrimental y la sintomatología visual. Se analizaron los datos a través de un ANVA y pruebas de Tukey (α= 0.05). Se detectaron diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos sin nitrógeno y sin calcio con respecto a la solución completa (Solcomp) en las variables de crecimiento y de contenido nutrimental manifestándose de manera visual. En el tratamiento sin fósforo (SP) no se manifestaron diferencias significativas. Como conclusión, la información sobre contenido de N, P, K, Ca y Mg en el tejido foliar servirá como referencia a productores de esta especie para corregir deficiencias nutrimentales de estos elementos en el desarrollo de la higuera.

Nutritional Value of Selected Edible Ficus Fruit in Kuantan

Interest in the nutritional value content in food had been increasing as one of the ways to reduce the disease among the human being. Ficus is one of the fruit that contained high in major source of nutrients. Considering the important towards the mankind, this study was conducted to evaluate the nutritional content of Ficus fruit. There were six species and varieties of Ficus used in this study. The fresh sample was collected from selected area in Kuantan, Pahang. The major proximal components such as moisture content, crude fibre, crude lipid, total ash, crude protein, carbohydrate and energy was analysed using AOAC method. Based on this study, the moisture content ranges from 36. 33 % - 49.67 % in F . carica cv. BTM6; crude protein 2.3 % - 4.58 % in F . carica cv. TGF; crude lipid 0.01 % - 0.11 % in F . carica cv. BTM6; total ash 14.94 % - 21.22 % in F . carica cv. Alma and crude fiber 0.88 % - 3.36 % in F . carica cv. BTM6. The highest value of carbohydrate and energy content was found in F. hispida with 43.86 % and 175.44 kJ, respectively. According to our findings, consumption of Ficus fruit is recommended for commercialized in green industry based on its nutritional content that was crucial for human health.

Ficus carica L. leaf anatomy: Trichomes and solid inclusions

AbstractFicus carica L., a typical plant of the Mediterranean environment, presents leaves covered by an extensive indumentum, and a mesophyll full of solid inclusions. The morphology and ultrastructure of the trichomes, calcium carbonate cystoliths and silicified structures of leaves of F. carica cv Dottato were investigated with light, confocal, scanning electron microscopy, and energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy. At the same time, histochemical reactions were also employed to analyse the indumentum composed by glandular and non‐glandular trichomes by applying chemical reagents and fluorescence microscopy. Non‐glandular and glandular trichomes, capitate, are described. Non‐glandular trichomes are unicellular simple, spine‐like and present different morphology and sizes. The capitate glandular trichomes are present on leaf adaxial and abaxial surface and consist of one‐celled stalk and 3/4 cells spherical head. Histochemical characterisation of leaf hairs revealed the presence of flavonoids, while glandular trichome head cells showed a complex mixture of alkaloids, essential oil and flavonoids. Cu and Al were found in the constitutive structures, spike and dome, of the cystoliths. Several epidermal cells and non‐glandular trichomes were silicified. Leaf hairs, trichomes secretions, solid inclusions and silicification of F. carica leaf have significant roles to play in relation to leaf protection from external factors, including high‐intensity radiation, herbivores or pathogens.

How an ancient, salt-tolerant fruit crop, Ficus carica L., copes with salinity: a transcriptome analysis

Although Ficus carica L. (fig) is one of the most resistant fruit tree species to salinity, no comprehensive studies are currently available on its molecular responses to salinity. Here we report a transcriptome analysis of F. carica cv. Dottato exposed to 100 mM sodium chloride for 7 weeks, where RNA-seq analysis was performed on leaf samples at 24 and 48 days after the beginning of salinization; a genome-derived fig transcriptome was used as a reference. At day 24, 224 transcripts were significantly up-regulated and 585 were down-regulated, while at day 48, 409 genes were activated and 285 genes were repressed. Relatively small transcriptome changes were observed after 24 days of salt treatment, showing that fig plants initially tolerate salt stress. However, after an early down-regulation of some cell functions, major transcriptome changes were observed after 48 days of salinity. Seven weeks of 100 mM NaCl dramatically changed the repertoire of expressed genes, leading to activation or reactivation of many cell functions. We also identified salt-regulated genes, some of which had not been previously reported to be involved in plant salinity responses. These genes could be potential targets for the selection of favourable genotypes, through breeding or biotechnology, to improve salt tolerance in fig or other crops.

Shoot Induction from Axillary Shoot Tip Explants of Fig (Ficus carica) cv. Japanese BTM 6.

Fig, or Ficus carica, is a fruit tree from the Moraceae family and is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Fig plants are mainly propagated through grafting, air layering, and hardwood cutting whereby these methods were found to be less efficient. Plant tissue culture is efficient method to propagate plants, particularly to produce true-to-type platelets for mass multiplication. The aim of this study is to induce multiple shoot formation on Ficus carica cv. Japanese BTM 6 through identifying and optimising the concentrations of 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) and Zeatin suited for shoot formation. The axillary shoot tip explants were cultured in MS media supplemented with different concentrations of BAP and Zeatin (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mg/L) to determine the optimal concentration for the formation of multiple shoots. Number of shoots per explants and the differences in shoot height of explants were calculated after 8 and 12 weeks of culture respectively. Of all the treatments of BAP, MS media containing with 2 mg/L BAP marked the highest number of shoots per explant with the average value of 1.67 ± 0.33 while 1.5 and 2 mg/L of BAP produced the highest differences in shoot height with 0.51 ± 0.08 cm and 0.51 ± 0.07 cm after 12 weeks respectively. Murashige and Skoog (MS) media supplemented with 2 mg/L Zeatin showed the highest production of multiple shoots and differences in shoot height with the average of 0.83 ± 0.219 and 0.32 ± 0.04 cm respectively among all the different treatments of Zeatin. In this study, BAP performed better in shoot induction and elongation as compared to Zeatin for the cultivar Japanese BTM 6.

Purification and autolysis of the ficin isoforms from fig (Ficus carica cv. Sabz) latex

Ficin (EC 3.4.22.3), a cysteine endoproteolytic protease in fig trees' latex, has multiple isoforms. Until now, no data on autolysis of individual ficins (ficin isoforms) are available. Following purification, ficins' autolysis was determined by HPLC chromatogram changes and ultrafiltrations at different temperatures and storage times. These results showed that the number of HPLC peaks in latex proteins purification of Ficus carica cv. Sabz varied from previous fig varieties or cultivars. Proteolytic activity of ficins was inhibited by specific cysteine protease inhibitors, confirming the participation of the cysteine residue in the active site. The zeta potential of the first two eluted peaks (I and II) was negative, while that of other peaks were positive. All ficins were susceptible to autolysis when stored at high temperatures. In contrast, only the last two ficins (B, C) were prone to autolysis at cold temperature after long storage period. The rate of degradation of the ficins was significantly increased with the increased storage time. The ficin (A) related to peak (III) had the highest and the lowest surface hydrophobic patches and ratio of autolytic to proteolytic activity, respectively.