Caribou Populations Research Articles

Maintaining animal assemblages through single-species management: the case of threatened caribou in boreal forest.

With the intensification of human activities, preserving animal populations is a contemporary challenge of critical importance. In this context, the umbrella species concept is appealing because preserving a single species should result in the protection of multiple co-occurring species. Practitioners, though, face the task of having to find suitable umbrellas to develop single-species management guidelines. In North America, boreal forests must be managed to facilitate the recovery of the threatened boreal caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Yet, the effect of caribou conservation on co-occurring animal species remains poorly documented. We tested if boreal caribou can constitute an effective umbrella for boreal fauna. Birds, small mammals, and insects were sampled along gradients of post-harvest and post-fire forest succession. Predictive models of occupancy were developed from the responses of 95 species to characteristics of forest stands and their surroundings. We then assessed the similarity of species occupancy expected between simulated harvested landscapes and a 90 000-km2 uncut landscape. Managed landscapes were simulated based on three levels of disturbance, two timber-harvest rotation cycles, and dispersed or aggregated cut-blocks. We found that management guidelines that were more likely to maintain caribou populations should also better preserve animal assemblages. Relative to fragmentation or harvest cycle, we detected a stronger effect of habitat loss on species assemblages. Disturbing 22%, 35%, and 45% of the landscape should result, respectively, in 80%, 60%, and 40% probability for caribou populations to be sustainable; in turn, this should result in regional species assemblages with Jaccard similarity indices of 0.86, 0.79, and 0.74, respectively, relative to the uncut landscape. Our study thus demonstrates the value of single-species management for animal conservation. Our quantitative approach allows for the evaluation of management guidelines prior to implementation, thereby providing a tool for establishing suitable compromises between economic and environmental sustainability of human activities.

Evaluation of an unmanned aircraft system for detecting surrogate caribou targets in Labrador

Regular, standardized population inventories have been suggested as an important component to the recovery of declining populations of boreal caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). Current survey methods typically employ manned aircraft, which can be noisy, expensive to operate, and dangerous for the people conducting the surveys. Small unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have garnered attention as a promising alterative to conducting aerial surveys in manned aircraft. Our research investigates the feasibility of using an UAS to conduct aerial surveys and determine which factors affect the detection of surrogate caribou targets, and hence may affect detection of real caribou. In the fall of 2013, we tested the capabilities of the Brican TD100E, a small, electric-powered fixed-wing UAS, to fly beyond visual line of sight near Goose Bay, Labrador. Seven surveys were done using different flight paths to collect aerial images of 26 surrogate caribou targets placed in six different habitats. Mixed effects logistic regression models were used to evaluate how habitat type, distance of the target from the image centerline, photo analysts’ experience level, flight time, and the target contrast against the landscape influenced the detection of surrogate caribou targets. We found that habitat type, target contrast, and the flight time affected target detection. Overall, 77.5% of the targets were detected; the odds of a photo analyst detecting a target in open habitat were roughly 10.5 times higher than in burned habitat and 42 times higher than in heavy forest. Target detection was influenced by the contrast of the target against the landscape, where a higher corrected integrated density was associated with greater target detection. The detection of targets was 87% during evening flights and 75% for morning flights. This study was the first of its kind to successfully fly a UAS beyond line of sight over land for non-military applications in North America and the findings of our research will provide an evaluation for using UAS to survey caribou in the future.

The eastern migratory caribou: the role of genetic introgression in ecotype evolution.

Understanding the evolutionary history of contemporary animal groups is essential for conservation and management of endangered species like caribou (Rangifer tarandus). In central Canada, the ranges of two caribou subspecies (barren-ground/woodland caribou) and two woodland caribou ecotypes (boreal/eastern migratory) overlap. Our objectives were to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the eastern migratory ecotype and to assess the potential role of introgression in ecotype evolution. STRUCTURE analyses identified five higher order groups (i.e. three boreal caribou populations, eastern migratory ecotype and barren-ground). The evolutionary history of the eastern migratory ecotype was best explained by an early genetic introgression from barren-ground into a woodland caribou lineage during the Late Pleistocene and subsequent divergence of the eastern migratory ecotype during the Holocene. These results are consistent with the retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet and the colonization of the Hudson Bay coastal areas subsequent to the establishment of forest tundra vegetation approximately 7000 years ago. This historical reconstruction of the eastern migratory ecotype further supports its current classification as a conservation unit, specifically a Designatable Unit, under Canada’s Species at Risk Act. These findings have implications for other sub-specific contact zones for caribou and other North American species in conservation unit delineation.

Łeghágots'enetę (learning together): the importance of indigenous perspectives in the identification of biological variation

Using multiple knowledge sources to interpret patterns of biodiversity can generate the comprehensive species characterizations that are required for effective conservation strategies. Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) display substantial intraspecific variation across their distribution and in the Sahtu Region of the Northwest Territories, Canada, three caribou types, each with a different conservation status, co-occur. Caribou are essential to the economies, culture, and livelihoods of northern indigenous peoples. Indigenous communities across the north are insisting that caribou research be community-driven and collaborative. In response to questions that arose through dialogue with five Sahtu Dene and Metis communities, we jointly developed a research approach to understand caribou differentiation and population structure. Our goal was to examine caribou variation through analysis of population genetics and an exploration of the relationships Dene and Metis people establish with animals within bioculturally diverse systems. To cultivate a research environment that supported legha gots'enete “learning together” we collaborated with Ɂehdzo Got'i ne (Renewable Resources Councils), elders, and an advisory group. Dene knowledge and categorization systems include a comprehensive understanding of the origin, behaviors, dynamic interactions, and spatial structure of caribou. Dene people classify to dzi “boreal woodland caribou” based on unique behaviors, habitat preferences, and morphology that differ from ɂekwe “barren-ground” or shuhta ɂepe “mountain” caribou. Similarly, genetic analysis of material (microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA) from caribou fecal pellets, collected in collaboration with community members during the winter, provided additional evidence for population differentiation that corresponded to the caribou types recognized by Dene people and produced insights into the evolutionary histories that contribute to the various forms. We developed culturally respectful and relevant descriptions of caribou variation through partnerships that respect the lives and experiences of people that depend on the land. By prioritizing mutual learning, researchers can broaden their understanding of biodiversity and establish a common language for collaboration.

Using Landsat imagery to backcast fire and post-fire residuals in the Boreal Shield of Saskatchewan: implications for woodland caribou management

Boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) are designated as threatened under Canada’s Species at Risk Act. A Recovery Strategy for the boreal population of caribou identified critical habitat for all but 1 of 51 caribou ranges – Saskatchewan’s Boreal Shield (SK1). The strategy identified 65% undisturbed habitat as the threshold below which a local population was not likely to be self-sustaining. Disturbance was measured as the combined effects of fires <40 years and anthropogenic land use. The fire component of the total disturbance model used fire polygons that were delineated using traditional mapping methods. Our study maps fire from 1988–2013 using the differenced Normalized Burn Ratio analysis of Landsat Thematic mapper and Operational Land Imager. Annual burned areas based on fire perimeters were similar between traditionally and Landsat-derived inventory approaches, but the traditional methods overestimated within-burn areas by 31.8%, as a result of including post-fire residuals and water bodies as burned. The federal recovery model assumes that all lands within provincial fire polygons (<40 years) are inadequate as caribou habitat, and ignores the potential value of post-fire residuals and water bodies as habitat. For some Boreal Shield ranges including SKI, where fire comprises the majority of the total disturbance and residual patches are abundant, total disturbance calculations, critical habitat designation and range planning decisions should take into account residuals, including water bodies.

Decision-support model to explore the feasibility of using translocation to restore a woodland caribou population in Pukaskwa National Park, Canada

The distribution and abundance of woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) have declined dramatically in the past century. Without intervention the most southern population of caribou in eastern North America is expected to disappear within 20 years. Although translocations have reintroduced and reinforced some populations, approximately half of caribou translocation efforts fail. Translocations are resource intensive and risky, and multiple interrelated factors must be considered to assess their potential for success. Structured decision-making tools, such as Bayesian belief networks, provide objective methods to assess different wildlife management scenarios by identifying the key components and relationships in an ecosystem. They can also catalyze dialogue with stakeholders and provide a record of the complex thought processes used in reaching a decision. We developed a Bayesian belief network for a proposed translocation of woodland caribou into a national park on the northeastern coast of Lake Superior, Ontario, Canada. We tested scenarios with favourable (e.g., good physical condition of adult caribou) and unfavourable (e.g., high predator densities) conditions with low, medium, and high numbers of translocated caribou. Under the current conditions at Pukaskwa National Park, augmenting the caribou population is unlikely to recover the species unless wolf densities remain low (<5.5/1000 km2) or if more than 300 animals could be translocated.

Habitat Restoration as a Key Conservation Lever for Woodland Caribou: A review of restoration programs and key learnings from Alberta

The Recovery Strategy for the Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Boreal Population in Canada (EC, 2012), identifies coordinated actions to reclaim woodland caribou habitat as a key step to meeting current and future caribou population objectives. Actions include restoring industrial landscape features such as roads, seismic lines, pipelines, cut-lines, and cleared areas in an effort to reduce landscape fragmentation and the changes in caribou population dynamics associated with changing predator-prey dynamics in highly fragmented landscapes. Reliance on habitat restoration as a recovery action within the federal recovery strategy is high, considering all Alberta populations have less than 65% undisturbed habitat, which is identified in the recovery strategy as a threshold providing a 60% chance that a local population will be self-sustaining. Alberta’s Provincial Woodland Caribou Policy also identifies habitat restoration as a critical component of long-term caribou habitat management. We review and discuss the history of caribou habitat restoration programs in Alberta and present outcomes and highlights of a caribou habitat restoration workshop attended by over 80 representatives from oil and gas, forestry, provincial and federal regulators, academia and consulting who have worked on restoration programs. Restoration initiatives in Alberta began in 2001 and have generally focused on construction methods, revegetation treatments, access control programs, and limiting plant species favourable to alternate prey. Specific treatments include tree planting initiatives, coarse woody debris management along linear features, and efforts for multi-company and multi-stakeholder coordinated habitat restoration on caribou range. Lessons learned from these programs have been incorporated into large scale habitat restoration projects near Grande Prairie, Cold Lake, and Fort McMurray. A key outcome of our review is the opportunity to provide a unified approach for restoration program planning, best practices, key performance indicators, and monitoring considerations for future programs within Canada.

Phase‐dependent climate–predator interactions explain three decades of variation in neonatal caribou survival

Climate can have direct and indirect effects on population dynamics via changes in resource competition or predation risk, but this influence may be modulated by density- or phase-dependent processes. We hypothesized that for ungulates, climatic conditions close to parturition have a greater influence on the predation risk of neonates during population declines, when females are already under nutritional stress triggered by food limitation. We examined the presence of phase-dependent climate-predator (PDCP) interactions on neonatal ungulate survival by comparing spatial and temporal fluctuations in climatic conditions, cause-specific mortality and per capita resource limitation. We determined cause-specific fates of 1384 caribou (Rangifer tarandus) from 10 herds in Newfoundland, spanning more than 30 years during periods of numerical increase and decline, while exposed to predation from black bears (Ursus americanus) and coyotes (Canis latrans). We conducted Cox proportional hazards analysis for competing risks, fit as a function of weather metrics, to assess pre- and post-partum climatic influences on survival on herds in population increase and decline phases. We used cumulative incidence functions to compare temporal changes in risk from predators. Our results support our main hypothesis; when caribou populations increased, weather conditions preceding calving were the main determinants of cause-specific mortality, but when populations declined, weather conditions during calving also influenced predator-driven mortality. Cause-specific analysis showed that weather conditions can differentially affect predation risk between black bears and coyotes with specific variables increasing the risk from one species and decreasing the risk from the other. For caribou, nutritional stress appears to increase predation risk on neonates, an interaction which is exacerbated by susceptibility to climatic events. These findings support the PDCP interactions framework, where maternal body condition influences susceptibility to climate-related events and, subsequently, risk from predation.

Integrating ecological and genetic structure to define management units for caribou in Eastern Canada

Genetic diversity is a key parameter to delineate management units, but many organisms also display ecological characteristics that may reflect potential local adaptations. Here, we used ecological and genetic information to delineate management units for a complex system involving several ecotypes of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) from Quebec and Labrador, eastern Canada. We genotyped 560 caribou at 16 microsatellite loci and used three Bayesian clustering methods to spatially delineate and characterize genetic structure across the landscape. The different approaches employed did not converge on the same solution, and differed in the number of inferred genetic clusters that best fit the dataset but also in the spatial distribution of genetic variation. We reconciled variability among the methods using a synthetic approach that considers the sum of the partitions obtained by each of them and retrieved six genetically distinct groups that differ in their spatial extent across the range of caribou in the study area. These genetic groups are not consistent with the presently defined ecological designations for this species. Combining both genetic and ecological criteria, we distinguished eight independent management units. Overall, the management units we propose should be the focus of conservation and management actions aimed to maximize genetic and ecological diversity and ensure the persistence of caribou populations inhabiting increasingly disturbed landscapes.

Evaluating sources of censoring and truncation in telemetry‐based survival data

ABSTRACTBias in vital rate estimation may come from failing to meet a variety of assumptions during the stages of sampling, monitoring, and analysis, though most are not commonly addressed in published studies. Here, we pay specific attention to various forms of censoring and truncation that present challenges for telemetry‐based monitoring of survival. We use simulations to assess how uncertainty about times of death and imperfect detection probabilities affect Kaplan–Meier survival estimates. We then treat monitoring of threatened woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in west‐central Alberta as a case study to test for potential effects of non‐random right censoring and interval censoring on survival estimates. We report that monitoring frequency (e.g., daily vs. monthly) and associated uncertainty about the exact time of death do not inherently induce bias on Kaplan–Meier point estimates of survival nor affect estimates of variance. Removing individuals from the at‐risk pool during intervals for which they were not detected did induce a negative bias on resulting survival estimates when the probability of detection was independent of the animals' fates. We recommend using subsequent detections to impute animals' fates during missed intervals in such cases when all animals' fates are eventually known or permanently right censored and when missed detections are not related to changes in mortality risk. Although some assumptions remain difficult to test and of continued concern, we find no evidence of biases in the methodology of Alberta's woodland caribou monitoring program. Our results lend credence to recent evidence of widespread declines in woodland caribou populations across the province. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Dietary overlap and potential competition in a dynamic ungulate community in Northwestern Canada

ABSTRACTThe potential for interspecific competition for food resources is a key consideration when newly introduced ungulates occupy a shared range with resident native species. Management plans in Yukon, Canada, for reintroduced bison (Bison bison) and introduced elk (Cervus canadensis) called for an assessment of competition for food resources between these species and resident populations of caribou (Rangifer tarandus), thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli), and moose (Alces americanus). To assess potential competition among ungulates, we examined dietary overlap of 7 ungulate species in southwestern Yukon, Canada. We compared diet composition at the forage class level and composite diet indices (diversity, evenness, and niche breadth) among species found at 2 elevation classes (high [≥1,200 m ASL] and low [<1,200 m ASL]) during summer and winter, using data derived from microhistological analyses of feces. Composite indices and percent of key forage classes in diets differed among ungulates during summer and winter and at both high and low elevations. Potential dietary overlap for most species pairs was low to moderate (0.07–0.60). However, for bison and thinhorn sheep at high elevations, and bison and semi‐feral horses (Equus ferus caballus) at low elevations, it was high (0.82–0.97) during both summer and winter, indicating potential for food competition. Dietary overlap between species appeared to be based primarily on morphophysiological classification (i.e., browser‐intermediate‐grazer), rather than body size. Bison, horses, and sheep were all grazers. Intermediate species, such as introduced elk, had only moderate dietary overlap with several species. We concluded that the potential for competition for food resources based on dietary overlap between bison and sheep and bison and horses may be high in our study area, depending on forage availability, but for all other species pairs in our study area the potential for forage competition is low to moderate. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Poisoning wolves with strychnine is unacceptable in experimental studies and conservation programmes

SummaryTo reduce predation on a woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) population threatened by industrial disturbance, a recent study in Alberta (Canada) used strychnine baits to kill wolves (Canis lupus). Strychnine should not be used to control wolves because it is: (1) inhumane; (2) in contravention of animal welfare guidelines; and (3) non-selective.

Current capacity to conduct ecologically sustainable forest management in northeastern Canada reveals challenges for conservation of biodiversity

Long-term exploitation of boreal ecosystems often results in a reduced range of ecological conditions that threatens several species. In most boreal jurisdictions, the northern extent of commercial forestry corresponds to economical rather than ecological considerations. Our general objective is to offer guidance for sustainable boreal forest management by using a biodiversity criterion based on three indicators. The first two indicators are part of a coarse filter referring to the proportion and fragmentation of tall, dense forest habitats, whereas a third one uses a fine filter for specific requirements of boreal caribou. We applied the methodology with and without anthropogenic disturbances on 1114 land districts to contrast the preindustrial potential and current capacity of Quebec’s boreal forest to support forest management. Originally, 826 districts (74%) were above the 20% cutoff value for the minimum proportion of tall, dense forest habitats. Among the 567 districts currently under forest management, 45 did not reach this value because of past anthropogenic disturbances. Originally, 88% of the districts had sufficient undisturbed habitats to maintain caribou populations, but anthropogenic disturbances reduced this proportion to 51%. The proposed methodology could contribute to delineating areas where sustainable forest management can be implemented. Our results also clearly show that management targets of the last decades were insufficient to prevent loss of habitats below strict minimum ecological thresholds. Our approach offers a general framework that could be adapted to other forested regions to attain similar biodiversity conservation objectives.

The nature of food: indigenous Dene foodways and ontologies in the era of climate change

Climate change leading to a drastic decline in caribou populations has prompted strict hunting regulations in Canada’s Northwest Territories since 2010. The Dene, a subarctic indigenous people, have responded by turning to tradition and calling for more respectful hunting to demonstrate respectful reciprocity to the caribou, including a community-driven foodways project on caribou conservation and Dene caribou conservation which I co-facilitated in 2011. In these ways the caribou is approached as a person. Dene responses to caribou decline can best be understood by ontological theories of an expanded notion of indigenous personhood. However, I argue these theories are inadequate without an attention to foodways, specifically the getting, sharing, and returning of food to the land. The necessity of sustenance reveals a complicated relationship of give-and-take between humans and caribou, negotiated by tradition, yet complicated by the contemporary crisis.

Eimeria rangiferis (Protozoa: Eimeriidae) reported from caribou in Ameralik, West Greenland

In recent decades the native Barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) south of the Godthaabs fjord (Nuup Kangerlua fjord) in West Greenland have mixed with semi-domesticated Norwegian reindeer (R. t. tarandus) imported in 1952 from Finnmark Norway and released onto the range of the Ameralik caribou population. Fecal samples from three calves of the Ameralik caribou population were examined for the presence of nematode eggs and eimerid oocysts. Two distinct nematode egg types were observed: the first, Nematodirella longissimespiculata, was found in all calves, while the second, a strongylid nematode, was detected in one calf. The coccidian eimerid Eimeria rangiferis was identified in all calves. This host-specific eimerid is found in Icelandic feral reindeer, which were also imported from Finnmark Norway. We suggest that Finnmark reindeer were the source of Eimeria rangiferis observed in Ameralik caribou today. There are three possible origins for the presence of N. longissimespiculata in Ameralik, 1) arrival with colonizing caribou from North America within the past 4000 years, 2) the 1952 introduction of semi-domesticated Norwegian reindeer, or 3) the current immigration of muskoxen.

Using Predator-Prey Theory to Predict Outcomes of Broadscale Experiments to Reduce Apparent Competition

Apparent competition is an important process influencing many ecological communities. We used predator-prey theory to predict outcomes of ecosystem experiments aimed at mitigating apparent competition by reducing primary prey. Simulations predicted declines in secondary prey following reductions in primary prey because predators consumed more secondary prey until predator numbers responded to reduced prey densities. Losses were exacerbated by a higher carrying capacity of primary prey and a longer lag time of the predator's numerical response, but a gradual reduction in primary prey was less detrimental to the secondary prey. We compared predictions against two field experiments where endangered woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) were victims of apparent competition. First, when deer (Odocoileus sp.) declined suddenly following a severe winter, cougar (Puma concolor) declined with a 1-2-year lag, yet in the interim more caribou were killed by cougars, and caribou populations declined by 40%. Second, when moose (Alces alces) were gradually reduced using a management experiment, wolf (Canis lupus) populations declined but did not shift consumption to caribou, and the largest caribou subpopulation stabilized. The observed contrasting outcomes of sudden versus gradual declines in primary prey supported theoretical predictions. Combining theory with field studies clarified how to manage communities to mitigate endangerment caused by apparent competition that affects many taxa.

Addendum to “Managing wolves (Canis lupus) to recover threatened woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in Alberta”

Managing predators to restore threatened or endangered species is often controversial. Hervieux et al. (2014; Can. J. Zool. 92(12): 1029–1037) report on the efficacy of wolf (Canis lupus L., 1758) reduction as a recovery strategy in the Little Smoky population of boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin, 1788)) range in Alberta, which generated a lot of media attention. As such, the authors were invited by the journal editor who handled the original paper to write this addendum to provide clarification regarding the methodology used in the original paper. Wolf reduction was conducted by Government personnel in accordance with appropriate policy and laws (i.e., federal and provincial Species at Risk Acts; Alberta Wildlife Act; Alberta Woodland Caribou Policy). University-based researchers were involved only in data analysis and writing, and thus did not require approval by a university-based animal welfare board. Collaboration between independent university-based scientists and government biologists is essential to effective assessment of such controversial management practices. Hervieux et al. (2014; Can. J. Zool. 92(12): 1029–1037) in fact concluded that such wolf reductions, by themselves, would only “buy time” and would not restore woodland caribou alone without effective habitat protection.

Adjustments in habitat selection to changing availability induce fitness costs for a threatened ungulate

Summary Functional responses in habitat selection occur when individuals adjust their selection of habitat features as a function of the availability of those features. Functional responses in habitat selection are generally assumed to be fitness‐rewarding tactics and are used to guide conservation actions. Fitness consequences of functional responses, however, have rarely been evaluated. Eighty‐three caribou were followed with GPS collars to establish the link between functional responses in habitat selection and adult female survival, a strong fitness correlate for caribou. We measured how caribou avoidance of mixed/deciduous stands and 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts varied with the proportion of 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts within their 100% minimal convex polygon (MCP), and if these functional responses were linked to survival. Mixed/deciduous stands and 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts are risky for caribou because they are selected by moose, thereby attracting wolves and increasing predation risk for caribou. Caribou avoided mixed/deciduous stands, especially when 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts comprised a large proportion of their MCP, but this functional response did not differ between caribou that died and those that survived. When the proportion of 6‐to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts in the MCP was low, caribou generally had low odds of occurring near 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts. However, when the proportion of clear‐cuts in the MCP was relatively high, caribou that strongly increased their odds of being near 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts were generally those that died. Synthesis and applications. Assessing the fitness consequences of how animals respond to habitat disturbances is central to wildlife conservation. We demonstrate that distinct functional responses in habitat selection involve different mortality risks and that population dynamics should depend on the frequency of the different tactics observed within populations. Individuals that persistently select riskier areas should be important drivers of population decline. Caribou mortality could be reduced by decreasing the appeal of 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts for moose by removing deciduous vegetation through cleaning, which should reduce the selection of wolves for these stands. Removing deciduous vegetation should be especially effective in areas where those clear‐cuts comprise a large proportion of the landscape, because this is where a subset of the caribou population experiences high mortality rates by selecting 6‐ to 20‐year‐old clear‐cuts.

Woodland Caribou Alpine Range Restoration: An Application for Lichen Transplants

Woodland caribou, a Schedule 1 ‘threatened’ species under the Canadian Federal Species at Risk Act, use alpine ecosystems in the mountainous South Peace region of British Columbia for core winter habitat, in part because they are able to crater for terrestrial lichen beneath the relatively thin snow pack on the windswept mountain peaks. A number of proposed and operating open pit coal mine developments will create disturbances within these alpine ecosystems. An Implementation Plan for the Ongoing Management of the South Peace Northern Caribou has been created by the province of B.C. to direct actions for South Peace region caribou population recovery, and part of the Mitigation and Monitoring Plan that must be created for disturbances in caribou core habitat is a habitat restoration plan. A component of the alpine habitat that must be restored is terrestrial lichen that woodland caribou rely on for winter forage; however, published studies about the restoration of terrestrial lichens are scarce. The majority of studies obtainable were small-scale trials or exploratory studies in reindeer range in northern European boreal forest, or in forested and alpine ecosystems in B.C. This paper reviews the literature on the feasibility of transplanting terrestrial lichen, and interprets the results for application in alpine caribou habitat restoration. Three main areas where further research is required to develop reindeer lichen transplantation techniques are suggested: methods to promote lichen propagule retention on reclaimed sites; investigating sources and collection methods for lichen propagules; and techniques for storage of viable lichen propagules.

Reply to the comment by Harron on “Widespread declines in woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) continue in Alberta”

Estimation of demographic trends from vital rates provides a powerful means to estimate population trends in cryptic or difficult to study species such as woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin, 1788)). Using such methods, Hervieux et al. (2013; Can. J. Zool. 91(12): 872–882) recently showed 11 of 14 woodland caribou populations in Alberta were declining at ∼8%/year following up to 18 years of monitoring. Harron (2015; Can. J. Zool. 93(2): 149–150) critiques our original study, claiming that negative biases in our demographic monitoring exaggerate our conclusions of widespread caribou declines. Here, we systematically review each of Harron’s claims of bias, rejecting each of his claims upon careful review of the mechanisms by which his purported claims would manifest in our population trend estimation. Therefore, we conclude that Harron’s scientific critique was superficial and misleading. Delays in conservation actions raised by Harron’s critique risk diminishing opportunities to conserve and recover this federally and provincially protected species.