Carbonaceous Structures Research Articles

The effect of heat pretreatment of heavy oil on the pyrolysis performance and structural evolution of needle coke

Needle coke has been widely studied due to its highly oriented carbonaceous structure and low thermal expansion for preparing high power electrode. In order to further investigate the effect of compositions and molecular structure of heavy oil (HO) on the pyrolysis performance and structural evolution of needle coke, the heat pretreatment at 360−400℃ for 2−10 h was used to modify the feedstock and the thermal polymerization method was adopted to prepare needle coke. It was concluded that the heat pretreatment process removed part of small molecular volatiles and increased the polycyclic aromatic content. The decrease of the small molecular volatiles content reduced the disordered disturbance of gas flow and transformed the structure from disordered texture to fine flow texture. The pre-treatment of light components avoided the out-plane crosslinking short carbonaceous sheets within the lamellae to eliminate the steric hindrance and relax the structural strains with few defects. Moreover, the heat pretreatment provided good thermal stability during the accumulation of carbonaceous structure.

Polarization effects in Raman spectroscopy of light‐absorbing carbon

AbstractRaman spectroscopy is widely used for characterization of carbon‐based materials including light‐absorbing carbonaceous (LAC) matter. However, information on polarization properties of these materials are generally lacking, and often the polarization characteristics of experiments are not presented in the literature thereby giving uncertainty to presented data. In this work, the polarization properties of various LACs are studied using Raman spectroscopy. The Raman spectra have been compared while varying the relative polarization, particularly the relative direction of the electric field between the incident light and the detected scattered light. Specifically, the intensity ratio between the D1 and G peaks (ID1/IG) was analyzed in parallel and perpendicular polarization configurations for samples taken from a sooting flame, in the exhaust of a soot generator and carbon blacks. In this work, the parallel and perpendicular polarization configurations mean that the polarization of the detected scattered light is parallel and orthogonal, respectively, to the linearly polarized incident light. It was found that the (ID1/IG) ratio decreased in the more ordered carbonaceous structures when changing the polarization configuration from parallel to perpendicular. Additionally, based on the depolarization ratios (Dp < 0.75), the prominent Raman peaks of LAC were found to originate from totally symmetric vibrations. For the G peak, the depolarization ratio was measured to be in the range 0.46–0.56 for all LAC materials.

Carbonaceous Oxygen Evolution Reaction Catalysts: From Defect and Doping-Induced Activity over Hybrid Compounds to Ordered Framework Structures.

Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is expected to be of great importance for the future energy conversion and storage in form of hydrogen by water electrolysis. Besides the traditional noble-metal or transition metal oxide-based catalysts, carbonaceous electrocatalysts are of great interest due to their huge structural and compositional variety and unrestricted abundance. This review provides a summary of recent advances in the field of carbon-based OER catalysts ranging from "pure" or unintentionally doped carbon allotropes over heteroatom-doped carbonaceous materials and carbon/transition metal compounds to metal oxide composites where the role of carbon is mainly assigned to be a conductive support. Furthermore, the review discusses the recent developments in the field of ordered carbon framework structures (metal organic framework and covalent organic framework structures) that potentially allow a rational design of heteroatom-doped 3D porous structures with defined composition and spatial arrangement of doping atoms to deepen the understanding on the OER mechanism on carbonaceous structures in the future. Besides introducing the structural and compositional origin of electrochemical activity, the review discusses the mechanism of the catalytic activity of carbonaceous materials, their stability under OER conditions, and potential synergistic effects in combination with metal (or metal oxide) co-catalysts.

Native gold in the weathering crust of the Nizhneselemdzhinsky gold-bearing node (Amur region)

Research subject. The weathering crust of Proterozoic slates in the Neklya River basin and Paleozoic granites in the Nizh- neselemdzhinsky gold-bearing node (NGBN) in the Tatarka River basin.Methods. The research was carried out using the methods of atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescent and mineralogical analysis of rocks and minerals. The method of raster electron microscopy was used to study the element structure, morphological and microstructural features of minerals.Results. Specific features of native gold from the weathering crust of NGBK were defined. It was established that the NGBN weathering crust contains both hypogene gold, partially changed in the course of hypergenesis, and neogenic gold. A considerable share of gold is of high purity (1000%o). Occasionally, gold in the form of complex accretions from grains of different morphology and structure is present. A specific feature of weathering crust gold is its interpenetrations within the rock matrix of a varying mineral structure. Gold-bearing carbonaceous structures in the form of films and outgrowths on gold grains were revealed; the presence of carbon in rock components associating with the noble metal was defined. In the crust, the participation of carbon in physicochemical processes was established, as a result of which the release of Au, encapsulated in minerals-concentrators, and its redeposition on geochemical barriers occur. Gold nanoparticles can be long-acting growth centres in the host rocks, first coalescing with each other to yield nanoformations, then microforms, etc. In the weathering crust of gold deposits, both the transformation of the hypogenic noble metal and the formation of its new forms occur.Conclusion. This work contributes to the expansion of the mineral resource base of gold in the Amur Region, including through such unconventional sources as the NGBN weathering crust.

Development of a new diamond-like carbon surface treatment method with electric discharge for short running-in and friction reduction

The present paper proposes a new treatment method for diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings using electric discharge. DLC coatings exhibit excellent mechanical and tribological properties due to their unique carbonaceous structure. Several surface treatment methods were presented to achieve short running-in and low friction. However, in-situ surface treatment is needed to extend the life of machines and maintain their performance. Here, we propose an electric discharge treatment with a simple electrical circuit. As a result, the friction coefficient drastically drops from 0.3 to 0.11. Interestingly, the drop starts shortly after the discharge starts. Consequently, the running-in is shortened to about 6-m sliding compared to no discharge condition, which does not show any running-in more than 68-m sliding. Raman analysis reveals that a transfer layer on the ball surface is composed of carbonaceous material and the structure exhibits graphite-like characteristics. However, there is visible damage on the DLC surface. Another friction test shows a very low friction coefficient of 0.04 using a transfer layer-covered ball and a new DLC disk with a smooth surface. In conclusion, the combination of a transfer layer and smooth DLC surface is needed to exhibit excellent tribological performance, indicating the importance of less damage treatment. Next, pulse discharge treatment is demonstrated to achieve less damage to the DLC coating. As a result, the pulse discharge method reduces friction and surface damage. In conclusion, the proposed treatment methods using electric discharge not only show the potential for reducing friction, but also the feasibility of in-situ treatment during machine operation.

Engineered nanomaterials for (waste)water treatment - A scientometric assessment and sustainability aspects

Application of nanomaterials for the treatment of effluents originated from various industrial and non-industrial sources, has been rapidly developed in recent decades. In this situation, there is a need for conclusive studies to identify the current status of the knowledge in this field and to promote the commercialization of such technologies by providing recommendations for future studies. In the present manuscript, a scientometric assessment on the progress made in this field has been performed and the results have been organized and discussed in terms of science statistics, research hotspots and trends, as well as the relevant sustainability aspects. Based on a set of keywords, identified through a pre-literature analysis, a total of 6539 documents were retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS) database and analyzed to achieve the main goals of this study. The results demonstrate that the studies in this field have been initiated since the beginning of the 2000s but were mainly performed in lab and pilot scales. Also, China and Iran were identified as the most contributing countries in this scientific area in terms of the number of publications. Among various types of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), there has been especial attention for the application of iron-based nanomaterials as well as carbonaceous structures (such as graphene oxide and biochar). Besides, there are not still strong collaborations formed among researchers in this area worldwide. Regarding the research hotspots, the synthesis of green and sustainable nanomaterials (e.g., biosynthesis approaches) has received attention in recent years. The results can also demonstrate that the most widely studied pathway for the removal of pollutants from (waste)waters involves the adsorption of the pollutants using ENMs. Treatment of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) as well as exploring the mechanisms involved in the treatment of contaminated (waste)waters using ENMs and the possible by-products are considered the current trends in the literature. Regarding the sustainability aspects of ENMs for (waste)water treatment, the results achieved in this study calls for in-depth sustainability studies, which consider parameters such as economic, environmental, and social aspects of nanomaterials utilization for (waste)water treatment purposes, besides the technical parameters, to push transferring such technologies from lab and pilot scales to large and real-scale applications.

Different Pathways for Synthesis of WO₃ and Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanotube-Based Nanostructures.

The synthesis and investigation of vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) based materials are gaining more-and-more interest among scientists due to their specific properties (e.g., electrical, optical, mechanical). Therefore, our interest for the present research has focused on synthesis of WO₃/VACNT based nanostructures (using carbon nanotube forests obtained by catalytic chemical vapor deposition-CCVD method on aluminum substrate) using different synthesis pathways and WO₃ precursors. The obtained composites were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, while the obtained crystal structures were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Results have shown that depending on the synthesis method, and using as template the carbonaceous structure, we can successfully obtain non-stochiometric tungsten oxide (W18O49) or WO₃ composites.

Comparative study of the carbonization process and structural evolution during needle coke preparation from petroleum and coal feedstock

To explore the carbonization behavior and structural evolution of needle coke prepared from different types of rich-aromatic materials, petroleum feedstock hydrocracking tail oil (HCTO) and coal feedstock low-temperature coal tar (LCT) were selected to prepare needle coke. The detailed comparative investigation focused on the properties of feedstocks and the structure of the derived needle cokes by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR), 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR), polarizing microscope, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 13C solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-ssNMR) and Raman spectra. It was found that the colloids in LCT3 accelerated the growth and evolution of carbonaceous structure and were not conducive to the preparation of needle coke. In addition, phenols in LCT3 led to oxygen-containing crosslinking during the secondary pyrolysis, which resulted in the spatial configuration of poor planarity and wider fringe spacing in optical texture. The calcination process further enlarged the structural defects of pyrolysis products, the steric hindrance and structural strains were aggravated as well.

Calcium Borate Particles: Synthesis and Application on the Cotton Fabric as an Emerging Fire Retardant

ABSTRACT In this study, environmentally benign calcium borate particles (sub-micron size) were synthesized by co-precipitation method and applied on cotton fabric to impart flame retardant property. Synthesized particles were characterized in details to analyze the particle size distribution, crystal structural and chemical constituents. Henceforth, the prepared calcium borate particles were integrated into cotton fabric by following a suitable process condition. Flame retardant efficacy of the treated fabric was analyzed by using vertical flame test and by measuring the limiting oxygen index (LOI) and cone-calorimetry parameters. Besides, particle add-on % on the treated cotton fabric was also optimized (trade-off between efficacy and physiological handle). Optimized concentration of calcium borate particles treated cotton substrate showed a LOI value of around 29 (control cotton fabric having LOI value of 18) and a significant decrease (75% lower as compared to the virgin cotton fabric) in peak heat release rate. Further, thermo-gravimetric analysis and char morphology of control vs. treated substrate were compared to understand the pyrolysis path and carbonaceous structure of cotton substrate, respectively.

Effects of Maleic Anhydride Grafted Polypropylene on the Physical, Mechanical and Flammability Properties of Wood-flour/Polypropylene/Ammonium Polyphosphate Composites

In this study, maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) was incorporated as coupling agent in the wood-flour/polypropylene/ammonium polyphosphate composites (flame-retardant WPCs). The effects of MAPP content (5 wt.%, 10 wt.% and 15 wt.%) on the physical, mechanical and flammability properties of flame-retardant WPCs were investigated. The water soaking tests showed that the incorporation of MAPP could reduce the hygroscopicity of flame-retardant WPCs. The mechanical properties of WPCs were evaluated by three-point bending tests, unnotched Izod impact strength tests, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The results showed that the flame-retardant WPC containing 10 wt.% MAPP (WPC/APP/MAPP-10 %) performed the best flexural properties, the highest impact strength, E′ value, and tan δ at room temperature. The limiting oxygen index (LOI) tests and cone calorimetry tests showed that the incorporation of 10 wt.% MAPP endowed the flame-retardant WPC with the highest LOI value, the lowest peak-heat release rate, total heat release, CO/CO2 weight ratio and total smoke release. Moreover, the characterization of the WPCs combustion residues performed that WPC/APP/MAPP-10 % had the most complete carbonaceous structure with the highest graphitization degree after combustion. In general, the addition of 10 wt.% MAPP could impart the flame-retardant WPC with the optimum physical-mechanical properties and flame-retardant performance.

Microbe-Assisted Assembly of Ti3C2Tx MXene on Fungi-Derived Nanoribbon Heterostructures for Ultrastable Sodium and Potassium Ion Storage.

As a typical family of two-dimensional (2D) materials, MXenes present physiochemical properties and potential for use in energy storage applications. However, MXenes suffer some of the inherent disadvantages of 2D materials, such as severe restacking during processing and service and low capacity of energy storage. Herein, a MXene@N-doped carbonaceous nanofiber structure is designed as the anode for high-performance sodium- and potassium-ion batteries through an in situ bioadsorption strategy; that is, Ti3C2Tx nanosheets are assembled onto Aspergillus niger biofungal nanoribbons and converted into a 2D/1D heterostructure. This microorganism-derived 2D MXene-1D N-doped carbonaceous nanofiber structure with fully opened pores and transport channels delivers high reversible capacity and long-term stability to store both Na+ (349.2 mAh g-1 at 0.1A g-1 for 1000 cycles) and K+ (201.5 mAh g-1 at 1.0 A g-1 for 1000 cycles). Ion-diffusion kinetics analysis and density functional theory calculations reveal that this porous hybrid structure promotes the conduction and transport of Na and K ions and fully utilizes the inherent advantages of the 2D material. Therefore, this work expands the potential of MXene materials and provides a good strategy to address the challenges of 2D energy storage materials.

Investigation of MOF-derived humidity-proof hierarchical porous carbon frameworks as highly-selective toluene absorbents and sensing materials

Carbon frameworks (CFs) derived from metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been produced as adsorbents of toluene. To further obtain optimum hierarchical porous carbon structure of CFs, different treatment temperatures were applied to a typical kind of MOFs (ZIF-8). The adsorption capacity of the toluene of hierarchical porous CFs obtained from ZIF-8 under 1100 °C (CF-1100, adsorption capacity of 208.5 mg/g) was higher than that of other carbonization temperature and MOFs. Impressively, the adsorbent CF-1100 also exhibited strong hydrophobicity, low desorption temperature, and good selectivity to toluene. The adsorption capacity decreased by only 10.4% under wet condition compared with the dry condition, standing on the top of the recently reported adsorbents. The impressive adsorption performance of CF-1100 is attributed to the larger specific surface area (1024 m2/g) and pore volume (0.497 cm3/g), newly generated micropores (pore width is 0.6–0.8 nm) and mesopores (pore width above 10 nm), and carbonaceous structure with higher degree of graphitization. Based on the adequate adsorption performance, CF-1100 coated quartz crystal microbalances as sensor also showed a high sensitivity of 0.4004 Hz/ppm and small relative standard deviations of 1.0745% for toluene sensing. This contribution provides a foundation for optimizing potential adsorbents and sensing materials for air pollution abatement.

Solid waste sub-driven acidic mesoporous activated carbon structures for efficient uranium capture through the treatment of industrial phosphoric acid

This research study presents bio-char manufacturing from a solid waste (rice-straw) by low-temperature pyrolysis as a new trend. The as-produced char (named as BC) and its sub-driven hydrochloric and nitric acids activated carbons (labeled as HAC, and NAC respectively) were employed as adsorbents for uranium removal from a commercial grade of phosphoric acid. Morphological and structural characteristics of the presented carbonaceous structures were accomplished utilizing Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The uranium adsorption process via these three structures was then performed via the batch technique at various operating conditions. It was observed that the labeled structure as HAC has an increased adsorption capacity, compared to the other two adsorbents. Thus, it could attain a higher level of uranium species removal than both NAC and BC. Hence, HAC could be subsequently concluded as the structure of most suitability, among the three adsorbents, for uranium taking out from industrial phosphoric acid. The collected adsorption results by the three structures had been next examined by diverse kinetic and isotherm models. By all structures in this study, the presented adsorption processes were found to follow the pseudo-second-order model and perfectly match the Langmuir isotherm model. The applied three sorbents’ sorption capacity was 2.3, 2.5, and 3.3 for BC, NAC, and HAC, respectively. This confirms that the bio-char activation with hydrochloric acid has the most positive impact on bio-char’s sorption characteristics The various thermodynamics factors ( Δ H , Δ G and Δ S ) could reveal that these processes are exothermic exploits. • Conversion of a type of solid waste into carbon. • Activation of carbon by acids obtaining effective porous sorbents. • Application of these adsorbents in uranium recovery from industrial media. • Studying kinetics and thermodynamics parameters.

A semi-crystalline carbonaceous structure as a wide-spectrum-responsive photocatalyst for efficient redox catalysis.

Herein, we synthesized an oxygen- and nitrogen-containing carbonaceous structure (ONCS). This ONCS possessed exceptional light-harvesting ranging from the visible to NIR light region. Characterization results confirmed that the ONCS was an n-type semiconductor. The ONCS can efficiently catalyze hydrogen photosynthesis and benzyl alcohol oxidation under visible light, even under NIR light irradiation.

Unburned material from biomass combustion as low-cost adsorbent for amoxicillin removal from wastewater

Ultimate and proximate analyses, HHV and BET surface area have been assessed in the unburned materials obtained by combustion in a conical spouted bed of four types of vegetable biomasses representative of forestry residues, grass and food industry. The results show that the materials are mainly of carbonaceous structure, which stems from the incomplete decomposition of cellulose and lignin, and their content decreases with combustion temperature. The unburned materials have a high surface area, which is of the same order as certain commercial active carbons, rendering them suitable properties for use as low-cost adsorbent. In order to verify this fact, removal efficiencies have been determined in amoxicillin removal tests, and the characteristic parameters, as well as mass transfer coefficients, have been calculated for two adsorption models following Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The results confirm that this byproduct obtained in the recovery of energy from waste biomass performs well in the removal of emerging pollutants from wastewater, and is a viable alternative of commercial adsorbents.

Kinetic analysis of CO2 gasification of biochar and anthracite based on integral isoconversional nonlinear method

AbstractThe nonisothermal thermogravimetric analysis was implemented for gasification of sawdust char (SD-char), wheat straw char (WS-char), rice husk char (RH-char), bamboo char (BB-char) and anthracite coal (AC) in the presence of CO2. The dependence of activation energy upon conversion for different biochars and AC was obtained by the integral isoconversional nonlinear (NL-INT) method which is a model-free method. Based on the activation energy values from the NL-INT method, a model-fitting method called random pore model (RPM) was used to estimate the kinetic parameters including the preexponential factor and pore structure parameter from the experimental data. The results are shown that the gasification reactivity of different samples from high to low can be sorted as that of WS-char, SD-char, BB-char, RH-char and AC. In the early stage of gasification, the activation energy values of biochars increase generally with an increase in the conversion degree, whereas the value of AC decreases. Thereafter, the activation energy values remain almost unchanged when the conversion is up to some extent. When the conversion degree varies between about 0.3 and 0.9, these carbon materials can be sorted in the order of average activation energy from low to high as WS-char, SD-char, AC, RH-char and BB-char, respectively, 134.3, 143.8, 168.5, 184.8 and 193.0 kJ/mol. It is shown that a complex multistep mechanism occurs in the initial stage of gasification, while a single-step gasification mechanism exists in the rest of the gasification process. The RPM is suitable for describing the gasification of biomass chars and AC except the initial gasification. Additionally, it is found that the kinetic compensation effect (KCE) still exists in the gasification reactions of biochars and AC. However, the AC deviates markedly from the KCE curve. This may be caused by the similarity of carbonaceous structure of biochars and the difference in reactivity between biochars and AC.

TiO2 decorated porous carbonaceous network structures offer confinement, catalysis and thermal conductivity for effective hydrogen storage of LiBH4

Lithium borohydride (LiBH4), with a high theoretical capacity of 18.4 wt%, is one of the most promising materials for solid–state hydrogen storage. However, it suffers from too high an operation temperature and poor reversibility. Here, a synergetic approach is developed to improve the properties. An active porous core–shell network structure is constructed as a scaffold for LiBH4–with carbon nanotube (CNT) as the core and nano–TiO2 decorated porous amorphous carbon as the shell (CNT@PC@TiO2) with an optimized fraction of TiO2. The hybrid scaffold possesses high porosity, large specific surface area and small pore sizes, for effective confinement of LiBH4 by a melt infiltration method and high loadings of LiBH4 up to 50–70 wt%, with enhanced interface diffusion and reaction without agglomeration; TiO2 reacts with LiBH4 during the infiltration process, to form LiTiO2 and TiB2 as the catalysts for LiBH4, and the CNTs facilitate heat management. The confined LiBH4 system shows considerable improvement of hydrogen sorption properties. At a LiBH4 loading of 60 wt%, the system releases 7.3 wt% H2 within 60 min at 320 °C, and a reversible capacity of 5.1 wt% is maintained even after 20 cycles. The present study provides further insight into the rational design and utilization of the synergetic effects of nanoconfinement, catalysis, surface interaction and thermal transfer to improve the overall hydrogen storage performance of LiBH4.

Influence mechanism and kinetic analysis of co-gasification of biomass char and semi-coke

In order to clarify the reaction mechanism of co-gasification of biomass char and semi-coke, the gasification properties of bamboo reed char (BR), semi-coke (SC) and their blends were systematically studied by the non-isothermal thermogravimetry. The physicochemical properties of BR and SC were characterized in detail, the main factors affecting the co-gasification reaction were studied, and the gasification kinetics under CO2 environment were further investigated. The results show that the gasification reactivity of SC is lower than BR, which is due to the higher order degree of carbonaceous structure and the lower alkali metal content in the ash, and the addition of BR can significantly improve the gasification reaction performance. Meanwhile, the synergistic effect between BR and SC was evidenced by the experimental and theoretical results. The gasification process of different chars was described with three typical kinetic models: unreacted core model (URCM), volumetric model (VM) and random pore model (RPM). The findings show that the performance of RPM is better than URCM and VM, and there is a significant kinetic compensation effect in the co-gasification reaction of BR and SC through kinetic fitting.

Gasification reactivity and kinetic parameters of coal chars for non-isothermal steam gasification

The gasification reactivity and kinetic parameters of coal chars for non-isothermal steam gasification were investigated. One kind of lignite and three kinds of bituminous coals were used as the samples, and their coal ranks follow the ascending order: XB KL > ZJ > GD. Through systematically analyzing factors affecting gasification reactivity, it was ascertained that the gasification reactivity is mostly determined by the carbonaceous structure. The gasification reactivity is inversely proportional to the coal rank, and the higher the coal rank, the lower the gasification reactivity. A new kinetic model was proposed to calculate the kinetic parameters, in which the reaction order was considered as an unknown kinetic parameter. The reaction order n follows the ascending order: XB < KL < ZJ < GD, which are n = 1.00, n = 1.34, n = 1.83, and n = 2.63, respectively. It is proved that the reaction order is proportional to the coal rank, and the higher the coal rank, the higher the reaction order.

A Case Study of Polyether Ether Ketone (I): Investigating the Thermal and Fire Behavior of a High-Performance Material.

The thermal and fire behaviors of a high-performance polymeric material—polyether ether ketone (PEEK) was investigated. The TG plots of PEEK under different oxygen concentrations revealed that the initial step of thermal decomposition does not greatly depend on the oxygen level. However, oxygen concentration plays a major role in the subsequent decomposition steps. In order to understand the thermal decomposition mechanism of PEEK several methods were employed, i.e., pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py–GC–MS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) coupled with a Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR). It was observed that the initial decomposition step of the material may lead to the release of noncombustible gases and the formation of a highly crosslinked graphite-like carbonaceous structure. Moreover, during the mass loss cone calorimetry test, PEEK has shown excellent charring and fire resistance when it is subjected to an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m². Based on the fire behavior and the identification of pyrolysis gases evolved during the decomposition of PEEK, the enhanced fire resistance of PEEK was assigned to the dilution of the flammable decomposition gases as well as the formation of a protective graphite-like charred structure during its decomposition. Moreover, at 60 kW/m², ignition occurred more quickly. This is because a higher rate of release of decomposition products is achieved at such a heat flux, causing a higher concentration of combustibles, thus an earlier ignition. However, the peak of heat release rate of the material did not exceed 125 kW/m².