Carbon Capture And Storage Deployment Research Articles

Optimizing large-scale CO2 pipeline networks using a geospatial splitting approach

CO2 transport infrastructure is the backbone of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology for the mitigation of carbon emissions and project deployment viability. In conventional large-scale CO2 pipeline network designs, the storage sites are generally assumed as the centroids of the major geologic basins, however, this approach might provide suboptimal solutions since the large extension of some storage formations significantly increases the length of the CO2 transportation networks. To address this situation and obtain optimal pipeline routes, we present a novel geospatial splitting framework that partitions large basins into multiple sub-sinks. In our approach, we used a large number of reservoir models varying petrophysical properties and CO2 injection rates to compute pressure plumes through numerical simulations, leading to the calculation of the number of subregions for each basin as a function of the extension of pressure interference areas and boundaries. Finally, we applied K-means clustering and Voronoi polygon algorithms to partition large basins into subregions and obtain their sink coordinates. To demonstrate the capability of the developed workflow, we investigated two CO2 pipeline network modeling case studies using our splitting approach: one regional case study focusing on the Intermountain West (I-West) region and one nationwide case study covering the lower 48 states in the U.S. In both case studies, we compared the optimal pipeline routes using the original and new storage locations and examined the major differences. The use of the developed geospatial approach resulted in both cases in a shortening of the total pipeline network length by 13% and 10%, compared to the pipeline modeling with the original basins, leading to cost reductions of 25% and 17%, respectively, demonstrating that the location of point sinks has a critical impact on the length and expenses of pipelines to efficiently transport CO2 to distant storage sites. Therefore, the workflow presented here contributes to the proper and realistic modeling of case studies that support decision-making in CCS deployment.

Decarbonization pathways for Korea's industrial sector towards its 2050 carbon neutrality goal

This study examines cost-effective strategies for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Korea's industry sector to achieve the nation's 2050 carbon neutrality goal, using the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM) integrated assessment modeling (IAM) framework. We find that the iron & steel, cement, and chemical industry segments contribute about 70% of the sector's GHG mitigation efforts to align with 2050 carbon neutrality. Key decarbonization options include electrification of industrial processes, utilization of hydrogen and bioenergy, and adoption of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, although the relative significance of these options varies across the segments. We also demonstrate the dependency of sectoral decarbonization pathways on the availability of CCS and hydrogen technologies, as well as their influence on the development of upstream energy infrastructures, such as electricity and hydrogen production. Our results indicate that limited CCS deployment would necessitate a faster phase-out of fossil fuel-based industrial technologies and quicker decarbonization of the electricity and hydrogen production sectors. Conversely, constrained hydrogen deployment would increase reliance on CCS, placing a greater emission reduction burden on other sectors like electricity generation and buildings. Within the industry sector, limited CCS utilization would force the chemical segment to achieve disproportionately larger negative emissions compared to the constrained hydrogen deployment scenario, as the latter allows for wider adoption of CCS, particularly in the iron & steel segment. Overall, the study emphasizes the need for rapid and extensive transformation of the three key industrial segments to achieve Korea's 2050 carbon neutrality target, with CCS technologies and, to a lesser extent, hydrogen technologies playing a significant role in shaping the industry's decarbonization pathways and the nation's energy systems.

Assessing carbon capture and storage technology in industrial joint venture

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology can effectively reduce carbon dioxide emissions from industrial and energy production processes. Yet the commercialization of CCS technology is hampered by financial requirements. Existing research compares the costs and benefits of business models for individual CCS projects, no studies assess the industry and national levels. Here we use a dynamic computable general equilibrium model, constructure the vertical integration and joint venture business models for CCS. This study assesses the emission and economic impacts of joint ventures between China's high-emission industries and their upstream and downstream sectors. We find that adopting the joint venture model in the coal power sector, compared to the vertical integration model, initially exerts a negative economic impact but can mitigate 0.04 % of GDP by 2060. The chemical industry consistently benefits from the joint venture model both economically and in emission reductions. Downstream sectors of the steel and cement industries are unsuitable for participation in joint ventures. In addition, the joint venture model has significant industry linkage effects, affecting energy consumption, the scale and cost of CCS deployment. This work provides important information for the large-scale commercialization of CCS technology.

Investigating the Impacts of Carbon Pricing Mechanism on CCS development in ASEAN countries

Abstract Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a technology that contributes toward a reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from large point sources. It has been proven to be a crucial technology to decarbonise ASEAN’s hard-to-abate industry sector. ASEAN countries are a concentrated cluster, contributing to significant emissions, and provides the potential for suitable geological storage for CCS according to current studies. This paper discusses the impact of carbon pricing on the CCS development in ASEAN countries, through studying factors that enable or disable successful CCS projects. Causal Loop Diagram (CLD), as a part of system dynamics, was employed as an analytical tool to identify and visualize the key variables, system’s structure, the network of existing carbon pricing mechanisms and other financing instruments needed in CCS deployment. The results of this study indicate that strong public and private finance, the development of carbon markets, and carbon pricing policies are the key enablers for CCS projects in ASEAN. Carbon pricing should be viewed as an effective catalyst that helps the growth of CCS with the right policies in place, government and regulatory support, and market forces.

Global analysis of geological CO2 storage by pressure-limited injection sites

Limiting global warming to a 2 °C rise may require large-scale deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS). Due to the key role CCS plays in integrated assessment models of climate change mitigation, it is important that fundamental physical constraints are accounted for. We produce a global estimate of CO2 storage resource that accounts for pressure-limits within basin-scale reservoir systems. We use a dynamic physics model of reservoir pressurisation that is sufficiently simple to be incorporated into energy systems models. Our estimates address regionally inconsistent methodologies and the general lack of consideration for pressure limitations in global storage resource estimates. We estimate a maximum pressure-limited resource base and explore scenarios with different injection patterns, and scenarios where the extent of CCS deployment is limited by the history of regional hydrocarbon exploration and the readiness of countries for deployment. The maximum pressure-limited global storage achievable after thirty years of injection is 3640GtCO2 (121GtCO2yr-1), increasing to 5630GtCO2 (70 GtCO2yr-1) at the end of the century. These represent an update to volumetric-based estimates that suggest in excess of 10,000Gt of storage resource available. When CCS deployment is limited to the top ten countries ranked by the GCCSI Storage Readiness Index, our maximum storage estimate decreases to 780GtCO2 (26GtCO2yr-1) at the mid-century and 1177GtCO2 (15GtCO2yr-1) at the end of the century. These latter results fall within the range of projected deployment by the IPCC and IEA and suggest that reservoir pressurisation will limit CCS deployment if development does not rapidly expand beyond the current implementation.

Carbon capture and storage at Malaysia power plants: Evaluation of its feasibility and requisite enablers

Rapidly growing GHG emissions are significantly altering the world climate, necessitating a global decarbonization efforts to avert irreversible catastrophic failure of the world ecosystem. Malaysia is pledging to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 and has subsequently identified Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) as one of the solutions for carbon removal from its energy sector by 2050. However, the implementation of CCS presents formidable challenges, encompassing both technical and commercial complexities, especially for a nation like Malaysia, which has limited experience in large-scale CCS deployment. This study evaluates the feasibility of CCS implementation in Malaysia's fossil fuel power plants by conducting a comprehensive techno-economic assessment, taking into considerations the prevailing energy landscape of the country. This assessment is very crucial to demonstrate the feasibility of this plan within the timeframe, considering the limited research have been done to assess a national-scale implementation, as well as to provide the important insights for future policy implication to promote CCS adoption. The CCS scenarios are assessed through an analytical approach, and comparative analyses are conducted between alternative paths. The result shows that a large-scale implementation of CCS at Malaysia's fossil fuel power plant to achieve net-zero emission by 2050 are feasible given a strong enforcement on emission policy and establishment of CCS legal framework. CCS can potentially reduce 60% of Malaysia's energy sector total emissions, and a solar-supported CCS helps to reduce it further. Levelized Cost of Electricity analysis reveals that the implementation of CCS leads to only a minimal increase between pre- and post-CCS LCOE when carbon price is considered. A SWOT-PESTLE analysis was also conducted to identify gaps in regulatory framework, financial and social aspects. It can be concluded that CCS is a techno-economically viable solution, however Malaysia's readiness for CCS implementation is still at a very novice stage, and aggressive actions are needed to enable a successful full-scale implementation.

Incentive policies to realize large-scale deployment of CCS in China's power sector and its economy-wide impacts

Given the carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is still in the demonstration phase, large-scale deployment of CCS is urgently needed in the coming decades, especially in the power sector. Therefore, we built a computable general equilibrium model with detailed electricity technology module and assessed the economy-wide impacts of multiple incentive policies on large-scale deployment of CCS in the power sector. Results show that, first, if only CCS is subsidized, without supplementing carbon pricing, it will lead to deviations from the core environmental objectives of CCS development. Secondly, when CCS subsidies are combined with carbon pricing, if the sectoral indirect tax is reduced, the GDP loss can be better alleviated, and it can also have an obvious positive impact on energy conservation and emission reduction. Finally, a gradual sector-coverage way of carbon pricing contributes to further mitigating the accumulated GDP loss, easing sectoral profit losses, and improving positive effects on energy indicators.

A preliminary assessment of CO2 capture, transport, and storage network for China's steel sector

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has emerged as a promising way for achieving deep decarbonization of China's steel sector. Large-scale CCS deployment necessitates a comprehensive source-sink matching analysis to offer early engineering guidance. To address this issue, this study conducted a source-sink matching analysis of China's steel sector, assessing CO2 sources, CO2 storage capacities and costs, and CO2 pipeline layouts under three capture targets. The findings reveal an obvious spatial mismatch between CO2 sources and potential CO2 sinks for China's steel sector. CO2 sources are mainly situated in eastern China, while main CO2 storage sites are located in western China. The average unit costs of CCS under low (30%), medium (60%), and full capture (90%) targets are 83, 91, and 118 $/t CO2, respectively. In particular, as capture target increases, the CO2 transportation cost will supersede the capture cost and dominate the average CCS unit cost, owing to the construction of longer pipelines. This study recommends prioritizing CCS demonstration with steel plants in regions having suitable CO2 storage basins nearby. Moreover, future investigations should concentrate on on-site experiments of CO2 storage basins and the technology development of offshore carbon storage in China.

Geoscientists at the vanguard of energy security and sustainability: Integrating CCS in exploration strategies

In the pursuit of sustainable energy solutions and enhanced energy security, the integration of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) into exploration strategies emerges as a critical imperative. Geoscientists play a central role in this endeavor, leveraging their expertise to navigate the complexities of CCS implementation within exploration frameworks. This paper delves into the multifaceted landscape of CCS integration, elucidating its significance in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and bolstering sustainability efforts. Through a comprehensive analysis of traditional exploration strategies, it underscores the compelling need to incorporate CCS methodologies to fortify sustainability objectives. Geoscientists, equipped with their specialized skill set, assume pivotal roles in driving CCS integration forward. Their proficiency in data analysis, coupled with an innate understanding of geological formations, enables them to chart pathways towards effective CCS deployment. Collaborative endeavors between geoscientists and diverse stakeholders further amplify the impact of CCS initiatives, fostering innovation and knowledge exchange within the energy sector. Drawing upon illuminating case studies, this paper examines successful instances of CCS integration in exploration projects, ranging from conventional offshore ventures to unconventional resource exploration. These case studies offer invaluable insights into the practical applications of geoscientific principles in shaping sustainable energy futures. Additionally, the paper explores emerging trends, future directions, and policy considerations aimed at fostering a conducive environment for CCS adoption within exploration strategies. This paper underscores the indispensable role of geoscientists at the vanguard of energy security and sustainability. By spearheading the integration of CCS in exploration strategies, geoscientists pave the way for a more resilient and environmentally responsible energy landscape.

Carbon Capture and Storage – Legal and Policy Considerations for Sustainable Energy Solutions

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has become a vital technological advancement in the fight against climate change by lowering greenhouse gas emissions from energy generation and industrial operations. However, the development and application of CCS technologies confront formidable legal and policy obstacles despite their potential to help achieve global carbon reduction goals. This study examines the legislative and policy tools required to support the implementation of CCS as a sustainable energy choice. To solve these issues, it evaluates national, regional, and international legal methods and the regulatory gaps that prevent CCS projects from being widely implemented. The analysis focuses on identifying the factors that hinder and facilitate the deployment of CCS, including environmental regulations, intellectual property rights, liability concerns, and public participation. The research also examines how current international climate agreements, like the Paris Agreement, impact CCS’s regulatory environment. This paper identifies optimal methods for establishing a favorable legal environment by evaluating case studies from nations with advanced CCS efforts. Lastly, suggestions are made for coordinating legislative and regulatory frameworks so that CCS can significantly contribute to realizing sustainable energy transitions.

Risks and uncertainties in carbon capture, transport, and storage projects: A comprehensive review

The rapid escalation of climate change and global warming underscores the critical role of CO2 emissions, necessitating effective mitigation strategies. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) has emerged as a promising way to address this challenge. It is estimated that CCS could account for 25–67% of emissions reductions in heavy industries. Nonetheless, the realization of large-scale CCS deployment demands a meticulous evaluation of associated risks (e.g., pure and speculative) and uncertainties (e.g., aleatoric, epistemic and Knightian) across the entire process. This review paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the risks and uncertainties (R&U), both technical (e.g., oprational and site chractrization) and non-technical (e.g., financial, political and social) inherent in CCS initiatives. Drawing from a diverse array of recent literature sources—including more than 400 CCS-related articles, books, theses, and reports—the analysis spans the period from 2015 to 2023. The methodology adheres rigorously to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, ensuring methodical precision and coherence. Our analysis indicates that approximately 47% of studies found from 2015 focused on technical R&U in CCS, while the remaining 53% addressed non-technical R&U. This distribution demonstrates a relative equilibrium in the research landscape as depicted in the literature. This review by considering R&U within the CCS landscape can provide crucial insights for engineers and researchers in decarbonization. It serves as a vital guide for navigating intricate challenges in CCS projects. Moreover, administrators and developers can use this knowledge to enhance technological security and cost-efficiency. Ultimately, this paper identifies practical strategies and methodologies that enhance the feasibility of CCS, offering concrete recommendations and suggestions to elevate the success potential of CCS endeavors.

The role of the Sustainable Development Goals for better governance of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

The discussion on the Anthropocene has increased the urgency to promote a sustainable society, considering the planetary boundaries, population growth and resource scarcity. Thus, the United Nations created the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development to address this challenge, including 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 SDG targets. In this context, the energy sector is one of the main sectors to achieve sustainable development and contribute to climate action using new technologies, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS). However, CCS can positively and negatively impact the planet and hinder or boost the SDGs, depending on how it is governed. Therefore, this article aims to discuss the role of the SDGs to better governance of CCS. To inform this discussion, we first show that 25 SDG targets are impacted positively or negatively by the use of CCS. This implies an urgent need to improve the way this technology is being deployed worldwide. To contribute regarding the governance, we highlight 13 targets that can help guide better use of this technology. This aspect of governance highlights that, to improve, actions must be spread on topics such as strengthening international collaboration, transfer of technology and financial resources, and the organisation of actors (researchers and decision-makers) to work together to achieve sustainable development. Finally, we point out that the sustainable deployment of CCS should be a goal to improve governance. Furthermore, we emphasize that the results of this work might have to be constantly updated, given that current research and technological advances may imply significant changes.

Assessing the Optimal Contributions of Renewables and Carbon Capture and Storage toward Carbon Neutrality by 2050

Building on the carbon reduction targets agreed in the Paris Agreements, many nations have renewed their efforts toward achieving carbon neutrality by the year 2050. In line with this ambitious goal, nations are seeking to understand the appropriate combination of technologies which will enable the required reductions in such a way that they are appealing to investors. Around the globe, solar and wind power lead in terms of renewable energy deployment, while carbon capture and storage (CCS) is scaling up toward making a significant contribution to deep carbon cuts. Using Japan as a case study nation, this research proposes a linear optimization modeling approach to identify the potential contributions of renewables and CCS toward maximizing carbon reduction and identifying their economic merits over time. Results identify that the combination of these three technologies could enable a carbon dioxide emission reduction of between 55 and 67 percent in the energy sector by 2050 depending on resilience levels and CCS deployment regimes. Further reductions are likely to emerge with increased carbon pricing over time. The findings provide insights for energy system design, energy policy making and investment in carbon reducing technologies which underpin significant carbon reductions, while identifying potential regional social co-benefits.

Smarter ways to capture carbon dioxide – exploring alternatives for small to medium-scale carbon capture in Kraft pulp mills

Carbon capture from the calcination process in Kraft pulp mills, also known as sulphate pulp mills, has potential as a part of carbon capture and storage (CCS) infrastructure deployment. Growing concern of climate change is increasing the interest for so-called negative emission technologies (NETs), and large emission points have great potential. However, among other factors, lack of financial incentives, trade-off with investments in existing products, and the necessity of large infrastructure that stretch across country borders, constrain deployment. This study investigates two concepts for carbon capture in combination with lime kilns in Kraft pulp mills: oxyfuel combustion and electric arc plasma calcination. The results from the modelling of six configurations show that carbon capture from the calcination process with these technologies can be made with comparatively low additional energy demand. Sulphate pulp production from Kraft pulp mills, which use lime kilns, is increasing in Europe and in the world. Therefore, there is large potential for capture of CO2 from these alternative calcination technologies, both as a first step towards and as a part of a large-scale deployment of CCS and bioenergy with CCS (BECCS).

Carbon capture and storage – a safe and reliable monitoring and verification plan developed using oil and gas industry core skill sets

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a necessary technology essential for meeting global emissions targets and limiting the impact of climate change – all identified pathways to global net-zero 2050 emissions targets require significant scale-up and deployment of CCS. The Moomba CCS project is an example of the type of projects that will reduce emissions and enable decarbonisation technology such as Direct Air Capture (DAC). The first phase of the project will utilise depleted hydrocarbon fields in the Cooper Basin, South Australia, to safely capture and permanently store 1.7 Mtpa CO2 that is currently vented. This paper will highlight the oil and gas industry’s unique skill sets that make it ideally placed to measure, monitor and verify the permanent storage of CO2 in geological formations. A monitoring and verification plan (M&V plan) has been developed based on SEO and ISO standards that encompasses four key elements: injection telemetry, reservoir surveillance, well integrity and environmental assurance. The plan was developed using a methodical approach to identify key risks, evaluate consequences, take preventative actions and put mitigating controls in place. Core oil and gas industry skill sets were utilised for the evaluation such as geomechanical and geochemical analysis, seal analysis, fault interpretation and reservoir modelling of CO2 migration. A program of surveillance activities will be undertaken to monitor and verify CO2 containment within the storage complex on an ongoing basis for the life of the project, and the M&V plan sets out a response plan and actions that will be taken in the case of deviation from expected performance.

The global status of carbon capture and storage: ambition to action

As the global response to climate change advances from ambition to action, the past few years have witnessed unprecedented levels of investments in carbon capture and storage (CCS), with the pipeline of commercial facilities continuing to grow as the technology becomes increasingly competitive and commercial in many countries. Key trends underpinning this momentum include the rise of the network project model enabling the use of shared infrastructure, the incorporation of CCS in private sector investment strategies, ESG (environmental, social and governance) considerations, green taxonomies and the industrial-scale production of hydrogen to meet demand. With CCS receiving increased awareness in international climate policy negotiations, a renewed focus on developing supportive policy, legal and regulatory mechanisms by national governments are also driving CCS deployment. Established leaders and early-movers in CCS-relevant policy, such as the United States, European Union and the UK, continue to maintain or strengthen their positions by allocating significant levels of funding for tax credits, subsidies and grants. Similarly, countries in the Asia-Pacific region, notably China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, are also advancing policies to incentivise deployment, including through the establishment of CCS-specific legal and regulatory frameworks. The outlook for CCS is optimistic, however, current deployment rates fall far short of what is required to keep global warming below 1.5 or even 2 degrees. Further action is needed to unlock the full potential of CCS and realise the Paris climate goals.

The contribution of carbon capture and storage to Canada's net-zero plan

This study is a first-of-its-kind CO2 source and sink study to enable Canada to reach net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050. Results show that CO2 emissions of 137 Mtpa is amenable to carbon capture and storage (CCS). Additionally, there is a CO2 storage capacity of 91 Gt in 71,907 gas fields, 8 Gt in 16,990 oil fields and 778 Gt in saline aquifers in 51 sedimentary basins and a CO2-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) potential of 10,329 million barrels across Canada. CCS projects of 137 Mtpa can be deployed by 2050 in three steps. First, CCS of 60 Mtpa is proposed between 2020 and 2030 at a carbon tax of $24/t for enhanced oil recovery projects in Western Canada with CO2 capture from natural gas processing and chemical plants. Second, CCS of 63 Mtpa can be deployed at a carbon tax of $75/t between 2030 and 2040. The CO2 can be stored in saline aquifer in Western Canada with CO2 captured from natural gas processing and chemical plants. Third, CCS of 14 Mtpa can be deployed at a carbon tax of $134/t between 2040 and 2050 where CO2 emissions captured from natural gas fired power plants are stored in saline aquifers in Eastern Canada. These CCS projects will generate a net present value of $35 billions with investment of $92 billions between 2020 and 2050. Based on the aforementioned CCS source-sink matching in Canada, policies to incentivize the CCS deployment are proposed.

Is Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Really So Expensive?

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an essential technology to mitigate global CO2 emissions from power and industry sectors. Despite the increasing recognition of its importance to achieve the net-zero target, current CCS deployment is far behind targeted ambitions. A key reason is that CCS is often perceived as too expensive.

Media Coverage of Carbon Capture and Storage: An Analysis of Established and Emerging Themes in Dutch National Newspapers

Policymakers in several European countries are considering the implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology as part of a strategy to prevent further climate change. Successful CCS implementation requires societal support but planned CCS projects have encountered significant opposition. In this study, we examine the CCS coverage in Dutch national newspapers from 2017 to 2019, a period during which the Dutch CCS landscape underwent several substantial changes, and compare the results to those of earlier media analyses conducted between 1991 and 2011. Most of the 324 articles identified discussed CCS in a neutral (36.4%) or balanced (24.4%) manner, and more critical articles than supportive ones were found (23.1% vs. 16.0%). Consistent with the earlier media analyses, the potential of CCS to reduce carbon dioxide emissions was a major theme in the positive portrayal of CCS, while the argument that CCS implementation is needed for the prompt reduction in emissions gained prominence. High CCS deployment costs and the perception that CCS is an unproven technology have remained major themes in the negative portrayal of CCS. The availability of and preference for alternative solutions was a more prominent theme in the conversation compared to earlier years, whereas the subject of CCS safety was discussed less than before. The study illustrates how media coverage can shed light on the evolving relationships between society and CCS, and on the established and emerging themes in arguments used for and against the technology.

Mapping the economy of coal power plants retrofitted with post-combustion and biomass co-firing carbon capture in China.

As a major carbon-emitting country, China has considerable potential for carbon capture and storage (CCS) applications, but economics is critical for CCS deployment. In this study, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) at province level was calculated for operational coal-fired power plants after post-combustion carbon capture (CC) retrofitting. The costs of captured CO2 and avoided CO2 were then compared. The economics of CC-retrofitted coal-fired power plants co-firing with biomass (BECC) were also analyzed. CC retrofitting is economical in North and Northwest China (except Qinghai) where coal prices are low. However, BECC retrofit is more suitable for coal-fired power plants in Central China where biomass prices are low. Therefore, the variation in the resource conditions among provinces should be considered when promoting CC and BECC retrofits. Compared with other power sources, coal-fired power generation becomes much more expensive after retrofits. We calculated the carbon price and capacity subsidy intensity that could support the retrofit of coal units. Effective carbon price should be 142.44-406.06 CNY/t for retrofits, and the capacity subsidy intensity ranges from 175.14-721.52 CNY/kW. The current carbon market and capacity market are not sufficiently developed to support retrofitting. The development of the carbon market with effective carbon price signals and proper power market mechanisms is critical to the rollout of CCS in China.