Carbohydrate Residues Research Articles

Concanavalin A conjugated biodegradable nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery

Major research issues in oral protein delivery include the stabilization of protein in delivery devices which could increase its oral bioavailability. The study deals with development of oral insulin delivery system utilizing biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles and modifying its surface with Concanavalin A to increase lymphatic uptake. Surface-modified PLGA nanoparticles were characterized for conjugation efficiency of ligand, shape and surface morphology, particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release. Stability of insulin in the developed formulation was confirmed by SDS-PAGE, and integrity of entrapped insulin was assessed using circular dichroism spectrum. Ex vivo study was performed on Wistar rats, which exhibited the higher intestinal uptake of Con A conjugated nanoparticles. In vivo study performed on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats which indicate that a surface-modified nanoparticle reduces blood glucose level effectively within 4 h of its oral administration. In conclusion, the present work resulted in successful production of Con A NPs bearing insulin with sustained release profile, and better absorption and stability. The Con A NPs showed high insulin uptake, due to its relative high affinity for non-reducing carbohydrate residues i.e., fucose present on M cells and have the potential for oral insulin delivery in effective management of Type 1 diabetes condition.

Stacking Interactions between Carbohydrate and Protein Quantified by Combination of Theoretical and Experimental Methods

Carbohydrate – receptor interactions are an integral part of biological events. They play an important role in many cellular processes, such as cell-cell adhesion, cell differentiation and in-cell signaling. Carbohydrates can interact with a receptor by using several types of intermolecular interactions. One of the most important is the interaction of a carbohydrate's apolar part with aromatic amino acid residues, known as dispersion interaction or CH/π interaction. In the study presented here, we attempted for the first time to quantify how the CH/π interaction contributes to a more general carbohydrate - protein interaction. We used a combined experimental approach, creating single and double point mutants with high level computational methods, and applied both to Ralstonia solanacearum (RSL) lectin complexes with α-l-Me-fucoside. Experimentally measured binding affinities were compared with computed carbohydrate-aromatic amino acid residue interaction energies. Experimental binding affinities for the RSL wild type, phenylalanine and alanine mutants were −8.5, −7.1 and −4.1 kcal.mol−1, respectively. These affinities agree with the computed dispersion interaction energy between carbohydrate and aromatic amino acid residues for RSL wild type and phenylalanine, with values −8.8, −7.9 kcal.mol−1, excluding the alanine mutant where the interaction energy was −0.9 kcal.mol−1. Molecular dynamics simulations show that discrepancy can be caused by creation of a new hydrogen bond between the α-l-Me-fucoside and RSL. Observed results suggest that in this and similar cases the carbohydrate-receptor interaction can be driven mainly by a dispersion interaction.

Intracellular Delivery of DNA and Enzyme in Active Form Using Degradable Carbohydrate-Based Nanogels

The facile encapsulation of biomolecules along with efficient formulation and storage makes nanogels ideal candidates for drug and gene delivery. So far, nanogels have not been used for the codelivery of plasmid DNA and proteins due to several limitations, including low encapsulation efficacy of biomolecule of similar charges and the size of cargo materials. In this study, temperature and pH sensitive carbohydrate-based nanogels are synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization technique and are studied in detail for their capacity to encapsulate and codeliver plasmid DNA and proteins. The temperature sensitive property of nanogels allows the facile encapsulation of biomaterials, while its acid-degradable profile allows the burst release of biomolecules in endosomes. Hence these materials are expected to serve as efficient vectors to deliver biomolecules of choice either alone or as codelivery system. The nanogels produced are relatively monodisperse and are around 30-40 nm in diameter at 37 °C. DNA condensation efficacy of the nanogels is dependent on the hydrophobic property of the core of the nanogels. The DNA-nanogel complexes are formed by the interaction of carbohydrate residues of nanogels with the DNA, and complexes are further stabilized with linear cationic glycopolymers. The DNA-nanogels complexes are also studied for their protein loading capacity. The degradation of the nanogels and the controlled release of DNA and proteins are then studied in vitro. Furthermore, the addition of a nontoxic, cationic glycopolymer to the nanogel-DNA complexes is found to improve the cellular uptake and hence to improve gene expression.

Comparative Dynamics of NMDA- and AMPA-Glutamate Receptor N-Terminal Domains

SummaryIonotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) harbor two extracellular domains: the membrane-proximal ligand-binding domain (LBD) and the distal N-terminal domain (NTD). These are involved in signal sensing: the LBD binds L-glutamate, which activates the receptor channel. Ligand binding to the NTD modulates channel function in the NMDA receptor subfamily of iGluRs, which has not been observed for the AMPAR subfamily to date. Structural data suggest that AMPAR NTDs are packed into tight dimers and have lost their signaling potential. Here, we assess NTD dynamics from both subfamilies, using a variety of computational tools. We describe the conformational motions that underly NMDAR NTD allosteric signaling. Unexpectedly, AMPAR NTDs are capable of undergoing similar dynamics; although dimerization imposes restrictions, the two subfamilies sample similar, interconvertible conformational subspaces. Finally, we solve the crystal structure of AMPAR GluA4 NTD, and combined with molecular dynamics simulations, we characterize regions pivotal for an as-yet-unexplored dynamic spectrum of AMPAR NTDs.

Thermal analysis of new glycopolymers derived from monosaccharides

A novel monomer carrying carbohydrate moiety was prepared by simple reaction of methacrylic acid with 3-O-(2′,3′-epoxy-propyl)-1,2:5,6-di-O-isopropylidene-α-d-glucofuranose. Another d-glucose oligomer was synthesized by the polycondensation of a dicarboxylic acid including the carbohydrate residue into the main polymeric chain, 3-O-benzyl-5,6-(bis-O-(acryloyloxy))-1,2-di-O-isopropylidene-α-d-glucofuranose, with propane-1,3-diol using p-toluenesulfonic acid as catalyst. These products were copolymerized with styrene and 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate, respectively, at different mass ratios, using benzoyl peroxide as initiator. Differential scanning calorimetry was performed in order to study the copolymerization process of the monomer and oligomer into the chosen co-monomers, respectively, and the activation energy of this process was evaluated using Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS) method. The storage and loss modulus of the obtained glycopolymers were evaluated using dynamic mechanical analysis. The thermal stability of the obtained products was studied via thermogravimetry.

KINETICS OF CATALYTIC THERMAL TREATMENT (CATALYTIC THERMOLYSIS) OF BIODIGESTER EFFLUENT OF AN ALCOHOL DISTILLERY PLANT

The biodigester effluent (BDE) of a molasses-based alcohol distillery unit was taken for catalytic thermal treatment (catalytic thermolysis) in the presence of CuO catalyst in batch mode in the temperature range of 100° to 140°C and pressure range of 1–9 bar. The catalyst mass loading, Cw, varied between 2 and 5 kg m−3. Thermal treatment at 140°C with a Cw of 3 kg m−3 gave COD reduction of about 70% from its initial value of 34 kg m−3. The BOD reduction was found to be 83% from its initial value of 6.3 kg m−3. The reductions of COD and consequently BOD are due to formation of residues of organics, i.e., carbohydrates, lignin, and proteins, present in the biodigester effluent. The characterization of CuO catalyst through X-ray diffraction shows the presence of the phase of CuO only, at different 2θ values. The kinetic data show two clearly distinct steps, a fast rate process followed by a slower process, adequately described by first-order kinetics with respect to COD. The order with respect to Cw was found to be 0.744 and 0.187 for the first and second steps, respectively.

Effect of Heavy Metal Content of some Common Spices Available in Local Markets in Erbil City on Human Consumption

Herbs and spices are sources of many bioactive compounds that can improve the taste of foods as well as their influence on digestion and metabolism processes. They can also contain some undesirable components that can be harmful, e.g. micotoxins, pesticides, heavy metals, and polycyclic carbohydrates residues. The objective of this study was to determine metals content in the most popular spices and herbs used in local market in Erbil. The content of these metals was assayed by Atomic absorption spectrophotometric method. The study showed differences in metal concentration according to the plant part (Rhizomes, Seed, Leaf, and fruit). The concentration ranged on dry basis were : ( 6.1- 47.0), (56-650), (6-44), (10.5-22.5), (8.5-26.5), (26-88.6), (1.25-14.6), and (0.045-1.35) mg/kg for the metals, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, Co, Mn, Pb, and Cd respectively. Most of the metal levels in the spices were acceptable with the exception of Pb, Cu and Cd which were above the standard limit approved by World Health Organization (WHO) and Food Agriculture Organization (FAO), Pb was above the standard level for fenugreek, cinnamon, Cd was above the standard level for ginger. Consumers of these spices would not be exposed to any risk associated with the daily in take of 10g of spices per day containing the following metals; Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, Co, Mn.but there are danger from fenugreek and cinnamon for Pb, while the danger of ginger is from Cd. Generally most of the spices available in the market are safe for human consumption except for Pb and Cd.

Influence of fourth generation poly(propyleneimine) dendrimers on blood cells

Dendrimers provide many exciting opportunities for potential biomedical applications. However, owing to their positively charged surfaces, poly(propyleneimine) (PPI) dendrimers show toxic and haemolytic activities. One of the methods for masking the peripheral cationic groups is to modify them using carbohydrate residues. In this study, three types of the fourth generation PPI dendrimers-uncoated (PPI-g4), approximately 35% maltotriose (Mal-III)-coated (PPI-g4-OS), and approximately 90% Mal-III-coated (PPI-g4-DS) were investigated by assessing their effects on red blood cell (RBC) haemolysis in samples of pure RBCs, RBCs in the presence of human serum albumin (HSA) or human plasma, and RBCs in whole blood. Lymphocyte proliferation and platelet (PLT) aggregation were also studied in the presence of various concentrations of dendrimers. Although all dendrimers examined affected all the blood cells studied, the unmodified PPI-g4 had the most damaging effect. It caused high RBC haemolysis rates and PLT aggregation and greatly inhibited lymphocyte proliferation. These effects were caused by the cationic surface of this polymer. The modification of PPI-g4 with Mal-III reduced the effect of the dendrimer on all blood cells. The presence of HSA or plasma in the buffer containing the RBCs or RBC in whole blood significantly decreased the extent of dendrimer-driven haemolysis.

Chitohexaose Activates Macrophages by Alternate Pathway through TLR4 and Blocks Endotoxemia

Sepsis is a consequence of systemic bacterial infections leading to hyper activation of immune cells by bacterial products resulting in enhanced release of mediators of inflammation. Endotoxin (LPS) is a major component of the outer membrane of Gram negative bacteria and a critical factor in pathogenesis of sepsis. Development of antagonists that inhibit the storm of inflammatory molecules by blocking Toll like receptors (TLR) has been the main stay of research efforts. We report here that a filarial glycoprotein binds to murine macrophages and human monocytes through TLR4 and activates them through alternate pathway and in the process inhibits LPS mediated classical activation which leads to inflammation associated with endotoxemia. The active component of the nematode glycoprotein mediating alternate activation of macrophages was found to be a carbohydrate residue, Chitohexaose. Murine macrophages and human monocytes up regulated Arginase-1 and released high levels of IL-10 when incubated with chitohexaose. Macrophages of C3H/HeJ mice (non-responsive to LPS) failed to get activated by chitohexaose suggesting that a functional TLR4 is critical for alternate activation of macrophages also. Chitohexaose inhibited LPS induced production of inflammatory molecules TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 by macropahges in vitro and in vivo in mice. Intraperitoneal injection of chitohexaose completely protected mice against endotoxemia when challenged with a lethal dose of LPS. Furthermore, Chitohexaose was found to reverse LPS induced endotoxemia in mice even 6/24/48 hrs after its onset. Monocytes of subjects with active filarial infection displayed characteristic alternate activation markers and were refractory to LPS mediated inflammatory activation suggesting an interesting possibility of subjects with filarial infections being less prone to develop of endotoxemia. These observations that innate activation of alternate pathway of macrophages by chtx through TLR4 has offered novel opportunities to cell biologists to study two mutually exclusive activation pathways of macrophages being mediated through a single receptor.

NMR Characterization of Immunoglobulin G Fc Glycan Motion on Enzymatic Sialylation

The terminal carbohydrate residues of the N-glycan on the immunoglobulin G (IgG) fragment crystallizable (Fc) determine whether IgG activates pro- or anti-inflammatory receptors. The IgG Fc alone becomes potently anti-inflammatory upon addition of α2-6-linked N-acetylneuraminic acid residues to the N-glycan, stimulating interest in use of this entity in novel therapies for autoimmune disease [Kaneko et al. (2006) Science313, 670-3]. Complete Fc sialylation has, however, been deemed challenging due to a combination of branch specificity and perceived protection by glycan-protein interactions. Here we report the preparation of high levels of disialylated Fc by using sufficient amounts of a highly active α2-6 sialyltransferase (ST6Gal1) preparation expressed in a transiently transformed human cell culture. Surprisingly, ST6Gal1 sialylated the two termini of the complex-type binantennary glycan in a manner remarkably similar to that observed for the free N-glycan, suggesting the Fc polypeptide does not greatly influence ST6Gal1 specificity. In addition, sialylation of either branch terminus does not appear to dramatically alter the motional behavior of the N-glycan as judged by solution NMR spectroscopy. Together these, data suggest the N-glycan occupies two distinct states: one with both glycan termini sequestered from enzymatic modification by an α1-6Man-branch interaction with the polypeptide surface and the other with both glycan termini exposed to the bulk solvent and free from glycan-polypeptide interactions. The results suggest new modes by which disialylated Fc can act as an anti-inflammatory effector.

Genotoxicity of poly(propylene imine) dendrimers

Dendrimers are highly branched macromolecules with the potential in biomedical applications. Due to positively charged surfaces, several dendrimers reveal toxicity. Coating peripheral cationic groups with carbohydrate residues can reduce it. In this study, the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of three types of 4th generation poly(propylene imine) dendrimers were investigated. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were treated with uncoated (PPI-g4) dendrimers, and dendrimers in which approximately 40% or 90% of peripheral amino groups were coated with maltotriose (PPI-g4-OS or PPI-g4-DS) at concentration of 0.05, 0.5, 5 mg/ml. Abbreviations OS and DS stand for open shell and dense shell respectively, that describes the structure of carbohydrate modified dendrimers. After 1 h of cell incubation at 37°C, the MTT and comet assays were performed. PPI dendrimers demonstrated surface-modification-degree dependent toxicity, although genotoxicity of PPI-g4 and PPI-g4-OS measured by the comet assay was concentration dependent up to 0.5 mg/ml and at 5 mg/ml the amount of DNA that left comet's head decreased. Results may suggest a strong interaction between dendrimers and DNA, and furthermore, that coating PPI dendrimers by maltoriose is an efficient method to reduce their genotoxicity what opens the possibilities to use them as therapeutic agents or drug carriers.

Synthesis of cationic magnetic nanoparticles and evaluation of their gene delivery efficacy in Hep G2 cells

Well-defined cationic polymers were synthesized via the reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer polymerization and were subsequently used as stabilizer for the synthesis of cationic iron-oxide magnetic nanoparticles via the coprecipitation method. The surface-coated iron-oxide nanoparticles made stable suspension in water and were characterized by a range of techniques such as dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The presence of protonated amine and carbohydrate residues onto the surface of the nanoparticles allowed their facile complexation with DNA and the resulting nanocomplexes were then studied for their efficacy as DNA carriers in Hep G2 cells.

Loss of cell‐surface sialic acids activates calcium entry in pulmonary endothelial cells

The endothelial glycocalyx is a complex mixture of glycoproteins, glycolipids and proteoglycans which coats the cell surface. Sialic acid is a carbohydrate residue that is typically found at the glycan chain terminus in a α‐2,3‐Gal‐ or a α‐2,6‐Gal/GalNAc‐linked configuration. We have previously demonstrated that pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs) express principally α‐2,3‐linked sialic acids whilst pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs) express both α‐2,3‐ and α‐2,6‐linked sialic acids. Further, treatment with neuraminidase, to cleave cell‐surface sialic acids, leads to endothelial barrier disruption as evidenced by loss of cell‐cell and/or cell‐matrix adhesions. Calcium entry through store‐operated calcium entry channels is a critical event that results in endothelial barrier disruption. However it is unknown whether selective cleavage of cell surface sialic acids leads to calcium entry. Confluent monolayers of PAECs and PMVECs were treated with neuraminidase from Clostridium perfringens and cytosolic calcium levels measured by the ratiometric dye Fura2/AM. Cytosolic calcium increased following addition of neuraminidase in both PAECs and PMVECs. EDTA addition to the extracellular solution reversed this increase. Collectively our data reveal that loss of cell‐surface sialic acids triggers calcium entry in pulmonary endothelial cells. Supported by 5R00HL089361.

Human MUC2 mucin inhibits the antimicrobial activity of β‐defensin 2

The intestinal epithelium is layered by a barrier composed of MUC2 mucin produced by goblet cells and β‐defensin 2, an inducible peptide produced by epithelial cells that exhibits antimicrobial and chemotactic activity. Bacteria infections and Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's diseases are associated with less MUC2 and altered defensin expression. In this study, we quantified the interaction between MUC2 mucin and β‐defensins. Human colonic mucin co‐incubated with β‐defensin 2 impaired defensin antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli. However, addition of mucin 10–30 minutes following bacterial incubation with β‐defensin 2 did not alter antimicrobial activity. Mucin protective function on bacteria was partially abrogated by digesting the mucin terminal sialic acid residues with neuraminidases and oxidizing carbohydrate residues with sodium metaperiodate. Expression of murine β‐defensin 4 mRNA, an orthologue of human β‐defensin 2, was constitutively increased in the colons of mice deficient in MUC2 (Muc2−/−) and in dextran sodium sulfate induced colitis. These studies suggest that MUC2 abrogates the antimicrobial effect of β‐defensin in the intestinal mucosa by binding bacteria and therefore, mucin may shape the normal microflora by limiting β‐defensin antimicrobial activity. In contrast, β‐defensins are up regulated during mucosal damage when the mucus barrier is breached.

Carbohydrate Structure Dependent Hemocompatibility of Biomimetic Functional Polymer Brushes on Surfaces

Glycocalyx mimicking glycopolymer brushes presenting mannose, galactose and glucose residues in the pyranose form, similar to those present on cell surfaces, were synthesized on planar substrates (Si wafer, gold chip) and monodispersed polystyrene (PS) particles, and the interaction of blood to these surfaces were studied using various methods with the goal of producing a hemocompatible surface. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy and gel analyses showed that the total protein adsorption from plasma was greatly reduced, as low as 24.3 ng/cm(2) from undiluted plasma on the glucose carrying brush. The protein adsorption decreased with increasing grafting density of the brushes. It was also found that the protein adsorption varied with the anticoagulant used for blood collection; much higher amount of protein was adsorbed from heparinzied plasma than citrated plasma. Proteomics protein identification analysis revealed that protein adsorption from plasma depended on the type of sugar residue present on the surface as well as the type of anticoagulant. All the three types of glycopolymer brushes showed similar level of platelet activation as that of buffer control irrespective of the nature of carbohydrate residue. However, the number of adhered platelet and their morphology depended on the type of carbohydrate residue present on the brush. On glucose brush, the extent of platelet adhesion and spreading was significantly lowered compared to other brushes. All the glycopolymer brushes were neutral to blood coagulation as indicated by thromboelastography analysis. The glucose brush gave a slightly longer initial coagulation time suggesting that this surface may be more biocompatible. Our data demonstrate that the structure of carbohydrate residue is an important factor in the design of synthetic blood contacting surface based on glycopolymer.

An efficient and recyclable catalyst for the cleavage of tert-butyldiphenylsilyl ethers

An efficient, chemoselective, and environment-friendly method for the deprotection of tert-butyldiphenylsilyl ethers mediated by triflic acid supported on silica gel is reported. A wide range of tert-butyldiphenylsilyl ethers derived from carbohydrate and saponin residues can be smoothly cleaved in the presence of various types of other protecting groups in good to excellent yields in acetonitrile. This heterogeneous reaction does not require aqueous workup, and the supported catalyst can be readily recycled.

Raman microspectroscopy as a non-invasive tool to assess the vitrification-induced changes of ovine oocyte zona pellucida

Cryopreservation-induced modifications of zona pellucida (ZP) have been explored to a lesser extent compared to other oocyte compartments. Different methods have been applied to identify ZP changes, but most of them are invasive and measure only few properties of ZP.Raman microspectroscopy (RMS) is a powerful technique for studying the molecular composition of cells but to date few studies have been performed on the oocytes using this method. The aim of the present study is to investigate the structural modifications of ZP of vitrified/warmed in vitro matured ovine oocytes by means of RMS. Cumulus–oocyte complexes were recovered from the ovaries of slaughtered adult sheep, matured in vitro and vitrified following the Minimum Essential Volume method using cryotops. ZPs of vitrified/warmed oocytes (VITRI), were exposed to vitrification solutions but not cryopreserved (CPA-exp) and untreated oocytes (CTR) were analyzed by RMS. We focused our analysis on the ZP protein and carbohydrate components by analyzing the 1230–1300cm−1 amide III region and the 1020–1140cm−1 spectral range in RMS spectra, respectively.The spectral profiles in the ranges of proteins and carbohydrates were comparable between CTR and CPA-exp ZPs, whereas VITRI ZPs showed a significantly altered protein secondary structure characterized by an increase in β-sheet content and a decrease in the α-helix content. A significant modification of the carbohydrate components was also observed. This study demonstrates that vitrification of ovine oocytes induces biochemical changes of ZP related to the secondary structure of proteins and carbohydrate residues. Cryoprotectants do not strongly alter the molecular composition of ZP which is affected mainly by cooling. Raman technology offers a powerful and non-invasive tool to assess molecular modifications induced by cryopreservation in oocytes.

Lipidomics of glycosphingolipids.

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) contain one or more sugars that are attached to a sphingolipid moiety, usually to a ceramide, but in rare cases also to a sphingoid base. A large structural heterogeneity results from differences in number, identity, linkage, and anomeric configuration of the carbohydrate residues, and also from structural differences within the hydrophobic part. GSLs form complex cell-type specific patterns, which change with the species, the cellular differentiation state, viral transformation, ontogenesis, and oncogenesis. Although GSL structures can be assigned to only a few series with a common carbohydrate core, their structural variety and the complex pattern are challenges for their elucidation and quantification by mass spectrometric techniques. We present a general overview of the application of lipidomics for GSL determination. This includes analytical procedures and instrumentation together with recent correlations of GSL molecular species with human diseases. Difficulties such as the structural complexity and the lack of standard substances for complex GSLs are discussed.

Macromolecules with Сarbohydrate Residues and Their Application in Glycobiology, Biotechnology and Material Science

The paper provides a short review about synthesis and research of macromolecules with carbohydrate residues. In recent years, research in the field of carbohydrate chemistry was focused on design and production of artificial glycoconjugates analogues containing the same structural and functional elements, i.e. neoglycoconjugates. Synthetic carbohydrate structures may possess similar natural properties, simulate various biological processes or stages used in biochemical research in obtaining antibodies to carbohydrate determinants, serve as selective delivery vectors into cells and be used as affinity chromatography sorbents. The paper also discusses the principles of glyconanoparticle (GNP) formation and their possible exploration in glycobiology and material science. Common ways of neoglycoconjugates research to study or to assess interactions with various classes of compounds, as well as for the creation of artificial antibacterial vaccines, biomimetics and contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were reflected.

DNA glycoclusters and DNA-based carbohydrate microarrays: From design to applications

Our goal was to design carbohydrate mimetics capable of preventing cell adhesion of pathogens by targeting lectins. The original synthesis of these mimetics combines the automated chemistry of DNA and “click” chemistry. From simple building blocks (i.e. phosphoramidites, solid supports and carbohydrates such as alkyne or azide derivatives), a “Lego” approach provides complex and varied decoys exhibiting various topologies and number of carbohydrate residues. The resulting glycomimetics tagged with a specific DNA sequence are efficiently immobilized on a DNA microarray by double strand formation. This glycoarray allows the study of the interactions between carbohydrate mimics and lectins using a minute amount of material. This micro system using DNA arrays is much more effective than conventional carbohydrate microarrays. The studies allowed the identification of the important structural parameters for a customized construction of high-affinity carbohydrate mimics.