Captive Parrots Research Articles

The effect of rope color, size and fray on environmental enrichment device interaction in male and female Orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica)

Environmental enrichment devices (EDs; a.k.a. cage “toys”) are often provided to captive parrots to mitigate the austerity of their environments, but the basis of attraction to EDs by parrots is poorly understood and many EDs go un-used. Preferences of Orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica) for various properties of sisal rope were tested by suspending rope EDs from computer-monitored switches attached to cage ceilings, two ED-switches per cage. Separate experiments examined preference for rope fray, length, diameter, and color, as operationalized by switch closures elicited by each ED when EDs of varying parameter quality were offered on either side of the cage. Bradley–Terry analysis contrasting woven vs. frayed rope found that both female and male parrots preferred wound (i.e., non-frayed) over frayed rope, though the extent of the difference was substantially greater for females than males (Cohen's d = 0.86 vs. 0.10, respectively). In contrasts of different rope lengths (6, 16, 26 and 36 cm), females preferred longer over shorter rope in four of six contrasts ( d = 0.45–0.90), while males preferred shorter over longer rope in four of six contrasts ( d = 0.25–0.72). Similarly, in contrasts of three rope diameters (12, 26 and 38 mm), female parrots preferred 38 mm over 26 mm diameter rope ( d = 0.20; other diameter contrasts were not significant), while in all contrasts males consistently preferred smaller over larger rope diameters ( d = 0.20–0.44). Both male and female parrots preferred red rope over green ( d = 0.92, 1.21, respectively) or yellow ( d = 1.23, 1.04, respectively); females additionally favored red rope over brown ( d = 1.34); males additionally preferred brown over both green ( d = 0.87) and yellow ropes ( d = 1.78). Overall, male parrots interacted much more extensively with rope EDs than did female parrots ( t = −3.431, P = 0.006; Cohen's d = −2.11). These results show that Orange-winged Amazon parrots have sex-specific preferences for rope length, diameter and color and that males interact more with EDs more than do females. These results provide the basis for developing EDs that are more likely to engage bird behavior and therefore be more effective in mitigating the austerity of cage environments.

Avian Bornavirus Associated with Fatal Disease in Psittacine Birds

Thanks to new technologies which enable rapid and unbiased screening for viral nucleic acids in clinical specimens, an impressive number of previously unknown viruses have recently been discovered. Two research groups independently identified a novel negative-strand RNA virus, now designated avian bornavirus (ABV), in parrots with proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), a severe lymphoplasmacytic ganglioneuritis of the gastrointestinal tract of psittacine birds that is frequently accompanied by encephalomyelitis. Since its discovery, ABV has been detected worldwide in many captive parrots and in one canary with PDD. ABV induced a PDD-like disease in experimentally infected cockatiels, strongly suggesting that ABV is highly pathogenic in psittacine birds. Until the discovery of ABV, the Bornaviridae family consisted of a single species, classical Borna disease virus (BDV), which is the causative agent of a progressive neurological disorder that affects primarily horses, sheep, and some other farm animals in central Europe. Although ABV and BDV share many biological features, there exist several interesting differences, which are discussed in this review.

Twenty‐two polymorphic microsatellite loci aimed at detecting illegal trade in the Cape parrot,Poicephalus robustus(Psittacidae, AVES)

Twenty-two polymorphic microsatellite loci were characterized in the Cape parrot, Poicephalus robustus. Nineteen loci were newly isolated from two Cape parrot genomic libraries, and three loci isolated from other parrot species. Loci were characterized in 40 unrelated captive Cape parrots held by aviculturalists. The loci displayed between two and 24 alleles, with the observed heterozygosities ranging between 0.10 and 0.94. This locus set is suitable for identifying clarifying parentage (parentage exclusion probabilities of P(E1) = 0.0004 and P(E2) = 0.000001). Candidate parents for any Cape parrot individual can now be genotyped to distinguish between individuals, which are truly captive bred and those suspected of being wild-caught birds. Cross-species analysis found up to 31 loci to be polymorphic across 24 additional parrot species tested.

Preferences of Orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica) for cage enrichment devices

Cage enrichment devices (ED), frequently termed cage “toys,” are often provided to captive parrots as a means of promoting a behaviorally stimulating environment, but it is not clear whether particular properties of EDs are more effective than others in eliciting engagement with them. We tested preference for color, size and hardness of cube-shaped EDs constructed from wood and of color preference for EDs constructed from flat rawhide rectangles. Orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica; N = 8–10, mixed-sex, 4–5 years of age) were individually housed in cages each equipped with two computer-monitored omni-directional lever-type switches attached to cage ceilings. EDs were attached to the switches; any interactions generating lateral movement and causing switch closure (operationally constituting “use” of EDs) were continuously recorded. Preference for 3.8 cm 3 softwood (Douglas fir) cubes dyed in eight different colors was tested by presenting each bird with all combinations of colors, two colors at a time. Daily switch activity averages were computed for each bird and subjected to repeated-measures ANOVA: yellow cubes elicited greater use than red, green, blue, violet or natural cubes ( P < 0.05; but see below) and orange cubes were preferred over green and blue cubes ( P < 0.05). Color exerted no effect in a comparable trial of rawhide rectangles. Preference for size of yellow hardwood cubes was tested by presenting combinations of cubes of three sizes: 2.5, 3.8, and 5.1 cm 3; the smallest blocks were preferred over the largest size ( P < 0.001). Preference for hardness of wood was tested by presenting birds with 3.8 cm 3 yellow cubes and blue cubes made of either Douglas fir (“soft”) or birch/maple (“hard”) wood; birds preferred softer cubes ( P < 0.0002), but there was no significant preference of yellow over blue. The results show that color, hardness, size and material all influence ED use by captive Amazon parrots. This constellation of preferences may reflect properties of foods native to Orange-winged Amazon natural habitat.

Broad Tissue and Cell Tropism of Avian Bornavirus in Parrots with Proventricular Dilatation Disease

Avian bornaviruses (ABV), representing a new genus within the family Bornaviridae, were recently discovered in parrots from North America and Israel with proventricular dilatation disease (PDD). We show here that closely related viruses are also present in captive European parrots of various species with PDD. The six ABV strains that we identified in clinically diseased birds are new members of the previously defined ABV genotypes 2 and 4. Viruses of both genotypes readily established persistent, noncytolytic infections in quail and chicken cell lines but did not grow in cultured mammalian cells in which classical Borna disease virus strains replicate very efficiently. ABV antigens were present in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of infected cells, suggesting nuclear replication of ABV. The genome organization of avian and mammalian bornaviruses is highly conserved except that ABV lacks a distinct control element in the 5' noncoding region of the bicistronic mRNA encoding the viral proteins X and P. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis demonstrated the presence of virus in many, if not all, organs of birds with PDD. Viral nucleic acid was also found in feces of diseased birds, suggesting virus transmission by the fecal-oronasal route. Immunohistochemical analysis of organs from birds with PDD revealed that infection with ABV is not restricted to cells of the nervous system. Thus, ABV exhibits a broad tissue and cell tropism that is strikingly different from classical Borna disease virus.

The prevalence of psittacine beak and feather disease virus infection in native parrots in New Zealand

AIM: To determine the prevalence of psittacine beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) infection in native parrots in New Zealand. METHODS: One hundred and sixty-nine wild native parrots and 143 captive native parrots throughout New Zealand were examined for the presence of BFDV, from June 2003 to January 2005. Feathers of each bird, and blood samples from 15 birds, were collected and submitted for PCR assay to detect BFDV. RESULTS: All of the samples from wild native parrots were negative for BFDV by PCR assays. Similarly, of the 143 PCR tests from captive native parrots 139 (97%) were negative for BFDV. However, a pair of red-crowned parakeets and two Antipodes Island parakeets from different captive facilities were found to be infected with BFDV. The infected birds showed no clinical signs suggestive of psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD), although the second Antipodes Island parakeet was found dead, and had pathological changes consistent with acute septicaemia. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate a very low prevalence of BFDV among free-living native parrots although captive birds, in particular native parakeets, are susceptible to BFDV infection, and the Antipodes Island parakeets may be susceptible to PBFD.

Sex ratios observed in 80 species of parrots

AbstractA number of potential evolutionary and physiological factors may be involved in avian sex ratio bias so that under certain conditions a sex ratio bias may favour males or females within a population. In addition different factors may be important in manipulating sex ratio bias through the different life stages. In this study sex ratio bias was examined in a total of 16 570 captive parrots, representing 80 species, many of which are endangered in the wild, using database records originating form commercial laboratories that offer genetic sexing. Within the species examined 72% showed a male bias this was significant in three species, when adjusted for multiple comparisons. This preliminary study is limited due to lack of data on the age of the individuals sampled. However, the large dataset do suggest that this phenomenon should be further considered by investigators working at a species level where such data can be collected.

Annual pattern of fecal corticoid excretion in captive Red-tailed parrots (Amazona brasiliensis)

Annual patterns of fecal corticoid excretion were analyzed in the threatened Red-tailed parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) in captivity. Corticoid concentration over the 15 months of the study (mean +/- standard error, 12.6 +/- 0.32 ng g(-1), n = 585) was lowest around May (the southern Fall), and greatest around September (late winter), just prior to their normal breeding period. Corticoid excretion follows a seasonal pattern best explained by reproductive cycles rather than climate, although climate may be involved in the timing of corticoid excretion. Fecal corticoids also show promise as a tool to measure stress levels. We demonstrate that fecal corticoid measurement is a simple, yet efficient method for monitoring adrenocortical activity in captive, and perhaps wild, parrots. Monitoring adrenocortical activity can inform researchers about imposed stress in captivity, whether pair-bonds are forming in captive birds, and of the timing of breeding both in captivity and in nature.

Welfare and health of captive african grey parrots in Kampala, Uganda

A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the living environment, feeding and health care of parrots kept as pets in homes within Kampala city, Uganda between January and May 2005. A multivariable logistic regression model was fitted to test the significance of housing attributes on the occurrence of feather loss and reported as adjusted odds ratios (AOR). A total of 148 parrots were studied in 97 homes, where 56 (38%) of the birds were in solitary confinement, while 82 (62%) were paired. All the parrots except a pair were apparently caught from the wild. Many (41%) cages were less than 1m2 in floor area while 44% of the cages had no perches. Most owners fed fresh unpelleted peanuts (91%), sugar cane (69%) and pepper (67%). Feather loss was the most prevalent condition observed with the risk of feather loss higher in birds kept solitary (AOR = 2.18: CI, 1.24, 3.98), those in small cages (AOR = 2.15: CI, 1.21, 2.47) and those in cages without perches (AOR = 2.12; 95% CI: 1.13-3.47). We observed that more than 40% of grey parrots kept as pets in Uganda were not provided comfortable living cages and were all fed principally on unprocessed seeds and grains, posing risks of malnutrition. Keywords: African grey parrots; pets; welfare; UgandaAnimal Production Research Advances Vol. 2 (3) 2006: pp. 139-143

The welfare and suitability of parrots as companion animals: a review

AbstractIn recent years there has been an increased interest in studies related to the welfare of avian species commonly kept as companion animals, specifically those in the order Psittaciformes, commonly referred to as ‘parrots’. During this time the biology and behaviour of wild parrots has also become better understood, aiding the assessment of welfare in captive environments. The impact of the pet trade on wild parrot populations has also become clear. This order now has more globally threatened species than almost any other major group of birds. Many significant aspects of parrot behaviour in the wild, such as flocking, social interaction with conspecifics, foraging on a variety of foods and flight, are denied to varying degrees to parrots kept as companion animals. Captive parrots show high levels of stereotypy, suggesting poor welfare. Welfare may be improved by appropriate environmental enrichment and changes in the social environment of captive parrots kept as companion animals; however, such changes require that caretakers have sufficient knowledge, resources and motivation to accommodate such conditions. The concept of companion animal suitability is an important consideration when developing regulations or policy aimed at improving the welfare of animals kept as companions. Although individual exceptions exist and the level of suitability may vary depending on species, in general, their presence in the pet trade has resulted in serious animal welfare and conservation challenges for parrots, indicating that these animals may be unsuitable as human companions.

Genetic, environmental, and neighbor effects on the severity of stereotypies and feather picking in Orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica): An epidemiological study

Stereotypies and psychogenic feather picking represent two distinct forms of abnormal behavior in parrots, with implications for welfare and owner relinquishment. While both behaviors are common in captive parrots, relatively little is known about the factors that may predispose a parrot to their development. To assess the effects of potential social, environmental, and genetic factors, we performed an epidemiological study of a colony of 64 Orange-winged Amazon parrots. We first used mixed model methods to assess the narrow heritability, or genetic determination, of stereotypy, which was −0.08 ± 0.14, and feather picking, which was 1.14 ± 0.27. We then focused our study on one room of 27 birds that had always been housed in the same cage location. We examined the effects of neighbor behavior, number of neighbors, sex, family, age, cage row (beside an aisle or beside a wall), and distance from the door, on each behavior. Stereotypy was negatively correlated with the number of neighbors, but was unaffected by any other factor. In contrast, feather picking was affected by family, was more severe in females, and was progressively more severe in birds housed closer to the door when they had a direct line of sight of the door. Feather picking was spatially clustered in the room, but siblings from particular families were also more likely to be housed as neighbors than were non-siblings. Given the strong effect of family on feather picking and the effect of proximity to the door, these factors together explained the spatial clustering of feather picking. In addition, the feather picking of neighbors was uncorrelated. Thus, there was no evidence for social transmission of feather picking. Our results indicate that cages should be located away from potential stressors, and suggest that there is a potential for breeding against feather picking behavior in parrots. Finally, the markedly different genetic and environmental effects on stereotypies versus feather picking emphasizes that these are two distinct classes of Abnormal Repetitive Behavior in parrots.

The effect of early environment on neophobia in orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica)

Early experience is often a significant factor in shaping animals’ later behavior. Early maternal separation is associated with negative behavioral outcomes, such as increased fearfulness in rats, while higher levels of maternal grooming during the neonatal period are associated with decreased fearfulness and increased exploratory behavior. This finding may have implications for the welfare of captive parrots, many of which are hand-reared for the pet trade. We investigated the effects of three different rearing conditions on the neophobia of juvenile orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica). Hand-reared (H, N = 6), parent-reared/human-handled (birds which were handled five times/week for 20 min/session between 2 and 8 weeks of age, PH, N = 6), and parent-reared without handling (P, N = 7) parrots were tested for neophobia between the ages of 4.5 and 6 months of age by measuring their latency to feed in the presence of five different novel objects. The parrots’ neophobia was assessed again at 12 months of age by measuring their response to a novel object hung in their home cage. Although PH birds were groomed by their parents significantly more than P birds ( F 2,16 = 6.21, P = 0.01), there was no significant difference in neophobia between the two groups ( F 1,11 = 0.41, P = 0.53, 1 d.f.). H birds were significantly less neophobic than P and PH birds until 6 months of age ( F 1,17 = 9.25, P = 0.007, 1 d.f.). At 1 year of age, P, PH, and H birds exhibited comparable levels of neophobia. Our results suggest that the development of neophobia in orange-winged Amazons is not related to parental care, but may be related to the level of novelty that the chicks experience during early life.

Psittacid herpesviruses associated with mucosal papillomas in neotropical parrots

Mucosal papillomas are relatively common lesions in several species of captive neotropical parrots. They cause considerable morbidity and in some cases, result in mortality. Previous efforts to identify papillomavirus DNA and proteins in these lesions have been largely unsuccessful. In contrast, increasing evidence suggests that mucosal papillomas may contain psittacid herpesviruses (PsHVs). In this study, 41 papillomas from 30 neotropical parrots were examined by PCR with PsHV-specific primers. All 41 papillomas were found to contain PsHV DNA. This 100% prevalence of PsHV infection in the papilloma population was found to be significantly higher than PsHV infection prevalence observed in other surveys of captive parrots. PsHV genotypes 1, 2, and 3, but not 4 were found in these lesions. Psittacus erithacus papillomavirus DNA and finch papillomavirus DNA were not found in the papillomas. A papilloma from a hyacinth macaw ( Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) was found to contain cells that had immunoreactivity to antiserum made to the common antigenic region of human papillomavirus (HPV) L1 major capsid protein. However, four other mucosal papillomas were negative for this immunoreactivity, and negative control tissues from a parrot embryo showed a similar staining pattern to that seen in the cloaca papilloma of the hyacinth macaw, strongly suggesting that the staining seen in hyacinth macaw papilloma was nonspecific. Based on these findings, it was concluded that specific genotypes of PsHV play a direct role in the development of mucosal papillomas of neotropical parrots and there is no evidence to suggest the concurrent presence of a papillomavirus in these lesions.

Research on the Anatomy and Pathology of the Psittacine Heart

Understanding the normal anatomy of psittacine birds is basic to the diagnosis and treatment of disease in these species. As a first step toward a systematic investigation of the avian cardiovascular system, we conducted a 2-part study of healthy and diseased parrots. In the first part, the normal heart shape, size, and weight were studied in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) and Australian king parrots (Alisterus s scapularis) that were euthanatized because of genetic feather abnormalities. To compare results of birds of different sizes, measurements were evaluated in relation to the length of the sternum of the individual bird. Only minor differences were found between the 2 species studied. In the second part of the study, the spectrum and the frequency of pathologic changes of the heart and the major vessels were evaluated in 107 caged psittacine birds that were presented for routine necropsy. Of the birds examined, 36% had visible gross lesions of the heart, the major vessels, or both. On histologic examination, 99% exhibited at least low-grade pathologic changes of the heart or major vessels, which frequently were associated with noninfectious diseases. The results of this study emphasize the importance of cardiovascular disease in captive parrots.

Renal Disease in Captive Swift Parrots (Lathamus discolor): The Effect of Diet on Plasma Uric Acid Concentrations

We retrospectively examined plasma uric acid concentrations of swift parrots (Lathamus discolor) in samples collected during a period when a suspected toxin was causing renal tubular pathologic changes. The primary aim of this study was to investigate plasma uric acid concentrations from birds with existing renal compromise on 2 levels of dietary protein. There was a significant difference in the monthly pattern of plasma uric acid concentration between the birds that died and those that remained clinically normal. Birds that were fed a high-protein ration had a significantly different monthly pattern of plasma uric acid concentration than those birds fed a low-protein ration. We then evaluated the effects of an overnight fast and subsequent feeding on plasma uric acid concentrations in swift parrots. The preprandial plasma uric acid concentration, taken after a 14-hour fast, was not significantly different from the 2- and 6-hour postprandial concentrations. To further examine the effect of diet on plasma uric acid concentration, we examined the plasma of wild swift parrots feeding on nectar, pollen, and insects and of swift parrots from a private aviculturist feeding seed and commercial lorikeet nectar food. The highest levels of plasma uric acid were those of the captive swift parrots fed the mixed nectar and seed diet; plasma uric acid concentrations of the wild birds were lower than preprandial concentrations of captive parrots. It remains unclear whether increases in plasma uric acid concentrations were a consequence of renal tubular damage or of high dietary protein levels. However, the finding of low plasma uric acid concentrations in wild birds and high concentrations in captive birds provide support for the hypothesis that dietary protein levels provided to captive birds were in excess of requirements. As nectarivores, swift parrots might have lower protein requirements than granivorous parrots. However, confirmation of this hypothesis will require nitrogen balance studies as a direct assessment of protein metabolism. We hypothesize that dietary protein levels did not induce the renal disease but might have contributed to ongoing pathologic changes in the damaged kidneys.

An economic assessment of the potential for predator management to benefit Puerto Rican parrots

The Puerto Rican parrot is one of the ten most endangered birds in the world, with the only wild population comprised of 30–40 birds. Predation has been identified as one of the factors limiting Puerto Rican parrot productivity in the wild, and the loss of a very few birds can have a great impact on the species. Management of red-tailed hawks, and black rats, feral cats and Indian mongooses, as well as further management of pearly-eyed thrashers is potentially beneficial to the parrot population. Because funding for the recovery of this rare species is finite, an analytical examination of the economics of predator management as a species enhancement method can provide managers with a solid basis for justifying and implementing this management approach. We used a benefit–cost analysis (BCA) to examine the potential Pareto improvements of predator management for protecting Puerto Rican parrots. The median and minimum expenditures aimed at parrot reproduction for both captive and wild parrots from 1997 to 2001 were used to define monetary values for Puerto Rican parrots. Predator management costs were estimated from existing US Department of Agriculture/Wildlife Services (USDA/WS) contracts for similar work in Puerto Rico. We examined the benefit–cost ratios (BCRs) for predator management assuming one to five and ten parrots were saved by the efforts. Analyses were conducted separately for each predator species and all species combined. The primary analyses focused on the benefits and costs for predator management for the current wild parrot population in the Caribbean National Forest (CNF), but another set of analyses targeted the proposed Rio Abajo (RA) site for the establishment of a second wild population. This second set of analyses was more conservative than for the existing population because predator management costs were assumed to be higher. Even when using the minimum monetary valuation for Puerto Rican parrots, the prevention of a single mortality due to predation within the existing wild population results in monetary benefits slightly exceeding the combined costs for management of each predator species (BCR=1.01). If median parrot values are applied, then only one parrot saved every 2.6 years allows the combined predator management to be cost-effective. If the year of maximal parrot values (averaged over captive and wild populations) is used, then only one parrot saved every 4.2 years makes application of all predator management methods cost-effective. Use of the single highest per-parrot value from among years and populations would result in the combined application of all forms of predator management being cost-effective if only one parrot is preserved from predation every 11.8 years. Assuming higher costs and minimum parrot values results in the combined application of predator management at the RA proposed population site to be cost-effective if 1.8 parrots/year are saved from predation. Use of median parrot value allows predation management to be cost-effective if one parrot is saved every 1.4 years. If actual costs for the RA site are the same as for the CNF, then the BCRs improve correspondingly. As more parrots are saved, the BCRs increase dramatically for each site.

Stereotypies in caged parrots, schizophrenia and autism: evidence for a common mechanism

Spontaneously occurring abnormal behaviors in animals have recently received considerable attention, both in veterinary medicine and as a potential model for abnormal behavior in several human mental disorders. Stereotypies are abnormal repetitive, unvarying, and functionless behaviors that are often performed by captive and domesticated animals housed in barren environments. They closely resemble the stereotypies of autistic and mentally retarded patients, stereotypies of unmedicated chronic schizophrenic patients, certain classes of simple tic in Tourette’s syndrome, and several drug-induced behaviors. However, evidence for a common mechanism has been lacking. Stereotypies in human mental disorders are indicative of profound brain dysfunction involving the basal ganglia, and are associated with pervasive voluntary-motor impairments and psychological distress. Here we show that stereotypy in captive Orange-Wing Amazon Parrots ( Amazona amazonica) is correlated with poor performance on the same psychiatric task (the ‘gambling task’) as stereotypy in autistic and schizophrenic patients. The task measures recurrent perseveration—the tendency to inappropriately repeat responses. Thus, the more stereotypy a parrot performed, the more likely it was to inappropriately repeat itself from trial-to-trial on the task; and the more rapidly it made repeated, but not switched, responses. These results parallel the executive motor impairments seen in human patients, and therefore suggest that, like in human patients, stereotypy in caged parrots reflects a general disinhibition of the behavioral control mechanisms of the dorsal basal ganglia. If this result holds true in other laboratory species, stereotypic animals are likely to be of questionable utility in behavior, neuroscience, and neuropharmacological experiments. In humans, stereotypies and obsessive–compulsive behaviors are considered to be mutually exclusive categories of behavior, with different neural substrates, and different treatment strategies. These results, therefore, suggest that the pharmacological treatment of stereotypies in veterinary medicine based on the assumption that they are equivalent to human Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder may be inappropriate. As stereotypies in captive animals develop in response to the captive environment, these results also emphasize the role that the environment may play in eliciting or exacerbating stereotypy in human patients. Finally, by parallel to human patients, there is a potential psychological distress in animals showing these behaviors.

Avian cryptococcosis

Clinical and laboratory findings in 15 unreported cases of avian cryptococcosis from Australia were collated and contrasted with 11 cases recorded in the literature. Cryptococcus species produced localized invasive disease of the upper respiratory tract of captive parrots living in Australia. This resulted in signs referable to mycotic rhinitis or to involvement of structures contiguous with the nasal cavity, such as the beak, sinuses, choana, retrobulbar space and palate. Parrots of widely differing ages were affected and of the seven birds for which sex was determinable, six were male. Cryptococcus bacillisporus (formerly C. neoformans var. gattii) accounted for four of five infections in which the species or variety was determinable, suggesting that exposure to eucalyptus material may be a predisposing factor. In these cases, Cryptococcus appeared to behave as a primary pathogen of immunocompetent hosts. One tissue specimen was available from an Australian racing pigeon with minimally invasive subcutaneous disease; immunohistology demonstrated a C. neoformans var. grubii (formerly C. neoformans var. neoformans serotype A) infection, presumably subsequent to traumatic inoculation of yeast cells into the subcutis. Two similar cases had been reported previously in pigeons domiciled in America. Data for parrots, one pigeon and other birds studied principally in America and Europe (and likely infected with C. neoformans) suggested a different pattern of disease, more suggestive of opportunistic infection of immunodeficient hosts. In this cohort of patients, the organism was not restricted to cool superficial sites such as the upper respiratory tract or subcutis. Instead, infections typically penetrated the lower respiratory tract or disseminated widely to a variety of internal organs. Finally, three captive North Island brown kiwis, one residing in Australia, the other two in New Zealand, died as a result of severe diffuse cryptococcal pneumonia (two cases) or widely disseminated disease (one case). C. bacillisporus strains were isolated from all three cases, as reported previously for another kiwi with disseminated disease in New Zealand.

Evidence for specificity of psittacine beak and feather disease viruses among avian hosts

Beak and feather disease is a major avian disease of both captive and wild parrot and cockatoo populations. Clinical signs include beak elongation and abnormal growth, together with weight loss and in some individuals the disease is fatal. We investigated the relationship between viral genotypes and their hosts in order to test for a positive association between distinct viral genomes and avian species. Specifically, we used the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify and sequence a 605-nucleotide (nt) segment of a coding region in the Beak and Feather Disease Virus (BFDV) genome. Feather and blood samples from 25 caged birds representing 10 species were assayed and the BFDV was detected in 21 samples from New Zealand. A phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from 17 specimens together with previously published sequences from Australian “isolates” revealed three lineages present in New Zealand. One viral lineage was found in six cockatoos representing two species (designated CT), a second lineage was detected in a budgerigar (designated BG), and a third was found in 10 lorikeets representing seven species (designated LK). This distinctive clustering pattern of viral sequences with groups of psittacine species indicates a genotypic association between the virus and these hosts.

A Bird in the House: An Anthropological Perspective on Companion Parrots

AbstractAlthough companion birds are the third most-common animal companion—after dogs and cats—in U.S. households, few anthrozoological publications focus on them. This study examines the role of companion parrots in American households. The study combines a literature review with the results of a survey of bird owners and participant observation. The study uses the resulting qualitative and quantitative data in addressing the social dynamics of companion parrot ownership in the household. The data support the impression that companion parrots increasingly are being considered family members, or "Fids" ("Feathered Kids"), thus following current trends in American society that accord companion animals in general a greater investment in time, money, and emotion. However, the general public is not well informed about the complexities of captive parrot care, and psittacine wellness is an important concern.