Capable Guardians Research Articles

The effects of risky behaviors and social factors on the frequency of fraud victimization among known victims

Abstract Background and Objectives Routine activity theory (RAT) asserts that a suitable target’s exposure to a motivated offender in the absence of capable guardians increases their likelihood of crime victimization. We use these principles to assess the extent to which engaging in risky routine activities—e.g., entering sweepstakes drawings, answering unknown calls—is associated with victimization frequency among older adult mass marketing fraud victims across five types of scams: investment fraud, sweepstakes and lottery fraud, romance and family/friend imposter scams, fake products and services, and charity scams. We also examine whether financial and social vulnerability characteristics (loneliness, preference for taking financial risks, financial fragility) are associated with victimization frequency in older adults. Research Design and Methods A survey was administered to households that the United States Postal Inspection Service identified as having recently responded to one or more mail scam solicitations. Respondents answered questions on their behaviors, financial risk preferences, social and demographic characteristics, and number of past year victimization experiences with five types of fraud. Results As predicted based on RAT, routine activities that increase a target’s exposure to motivated offenders are positively associated with fraud victimization frequency, although more frequent online activity was negatively associated with victimization frequency contrary to hypotheses. Precarious financial and emotional states such as financial fragility and loneliness also were associated with greater victimization frequency, and more frequent social engagement and living with others (the presence of capable guardians) had no effect. Discussion and Implications Target suitability factors such as loneliness, financial fragility, and risky financial preferences and behaviors are associated with a higher frequency of fraud victimization among older adults. Consumer education should include information on reducing risky behaviors that can increase fraud exposure. More frequent social engagement may not be protective. Older adults who are financially fragile and experiencing loneliness require more safeguards.

Food fraud prevention strategies: Building an effective verification ecosystem.

Food fraud is an ever-present threat that regulators, food business operators (FBOs), and consumers need to be aware of, prevent where possible, and address by developing mitigation strategies to detect and reduce its negative consequences. While extant literature focuses on food fraud detection, there is less attention given to prevention strategies, a knowledge gap this review seeks to address. The aim of this review was to consider food-related fraud prevention initiatives, understand what has worked well, and develop a series of recommendations on preventing food fraud, both policy related and for future research. Reactive (including intelligence based) food fraud detection dominates over prevention strategies, especially where financial, knowledge, and time resources are scarce. First-generation tools have been developed for food fraud vulnerability assessment, risk analysis, and development of food fraud prevention strategies. However, examples of integrated food control management systems at FBO, supply chain, and regulatory levels for prevention are limited. The lack of hybrid (public/private) integration of food fraud prevention strategies, as well as an effective verification ecosystem, weakens existing food fraud prevention plans. While there are several emergent practice models for food fraud prevention, they need to be strengthened to focus more specifically on capable guardians and target hardening. This work has implications for policymakers, Official Controls bodies, the food industry, and ultimately consumers who seek to consistently purchase food that is safe, legal, and authentic.

Mitigating security risks in global supply chains: The role of strategic communication and criminological approaches in countering illicit trade and cyber threats

In the era of global commerce, the integrity and resilience of supply chains have become paramount. However, the increasing complexity of international supply networks has exposed them to a myriad of security risks, including both physical threats and cyberattacks. This paper explores the critical role of strategic communication and criminological approaches in mitigating security risks within global supply chains. It argues that a proactive approach to security—one that integrates effective communication strategies and criminological theories—can significantly enhance the ability of organizations to manage and mitigate these risks. Strategic communication, encompassing clear messaging, timely information sharing, and robust stakeholder engagement, is essential for maintaining transparency and preparedness in supply chain operations. Effective communication ensures that all stakeholders are informed about potential threats and the measures in place to address them, thereby facilitating a coordinated and timely response to security incidents (Fearn-Banks, 2016; Coombs, 2007). This paper examines how organizations can develop and implement comprehensive communication plans that enhance their ability to anticipate and respond to security threats. In addition, the application of criminological theories, such as routine activity theory, situational crime prevention, and deterrence theory, provides valuable frameworks for understanding and addressing security vulnerabilities in supply chains. Routine activity theory emphasizes the importance of identifying motivated offenders, suitable targets, and capable guardians, which can help organizations develop targeted security measures to reduce opportunities for criminal activities (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Situational crime prevention focuses on modifying the environment to deter crime, while deterrence theory highlights the role of penalties and enforcement in preventing criminal behavior (Clarke, 1997; Becker, 1968). This paper explores how these theories can be applied to enhance supply chain security and develop effective preventive strategies. The integration of strategic communication with criminological approaches offers a holistic framework for mitigating security risks in supply chains. By combining these strategies, organizations can improve their ability to manage security threats, safeguard their assets, and ensure the continuity of their operations. The findings of this paper underscore the importance of adopting a comprehensive approach to supply chain security that incorporates both communication and criminological insights. Keywords: Global Supply Chains, Security Risks, Strategic Communication, Criminological Approaches, Cyber Threats, Licit Trade, Routine Activity Theory, Situational Crime Prevention, Deterrence Theory, Supply Chain Security.

Civil-Military Participation in Hostility Model: Theorizing attack of security personnel by civilians and vice versa

Theorizing civilian attacks on military and police officers in Ghana, the author adopted the Direct Participation in Hostilities concept applied in International Humanitarian Law during war time to protect civilians in the “Civil-Military Participation in Hostility Model”. It seeks to theorize the factors coalescing into incidence of hostilities during peace time by civilians against agents of State Security and vice versa. The Direct Participation in Hostilities refers to the cancellation of security protection of civilians during war, when they opt to participate in hostilities caused by the enemy, military or police intervention or operations. That conduct evaporates the expectation of protection from the military or police personnel, which makes the civilians targets in war times. In peace time, when civilians attack security personnel for cause or without cause, the withdrawal of protective performative services by State Security services should be the same as if it is war time situation justified by the concepts of self-defence and State Security. The “Civil-Military Participation in Hostilities Model” is a constructivist and realist approach to the resulting harm either perpetrated by civilians on the security personnel or the security personnel attacks due to civilian infractions or breach of public order. The eruption of hostilities from either angle may be due to the absence of a capable guardian or legal framework; and the absence of culpability, probity and accountability in security services delivery post-facto.

COVID-19, Cybercrime Proliferation, and National Security in Nigeria: Evidence from Lagos State Youths

That security is a public good is an apophthegm. Insecurity in Nigeria has been exacerbated since the COVD-19 pandemic. This is connected to the proliferation of cybercrime among youths which increased exponentially during the pandemic. This study addresses a lacuna in previous studies by investigating COVID-19 and cybercrime proliferation, cybercrime occasioned by COVID-19, and national security in Nigeria within the frameworks of the human security and routine activity theories. This study adopts a quantitative approach that uses structured questionnaires and interviews. Purposive multistage sampling was used to select 200 youth from 10 wards in Ikeja and Badagry local government areas and data were analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient. The findings showed that COVID-19 had a significant relationship with cybercrime proliferation and cybercrime occasioned by COVID-19 significantly affected national security in Nigeria. The increased number of computer users during the pandemic enabled some users to exploit others amid poor cybersecurity to commit cybercrime. The article recommends a reorientation of youth to reduce their susceptibility to crime, the development of cybersecurity policies to reduce the availability of suitable targets, and the empowerment of capable guardians such as the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission.

Feminist identity crisis in Africa

Feminist movement in Africa lacks capable guardians to steer the development of feminine identity or theory, and to operationalize the feminist agenda. The apparent lack of a national or continental feminist theory has not helped to elevate the status of the majority of women beyond the patriarchal controls, particularly in the rural and peri-urban communities, despite improved social modernization. Africa’s feminist crisis involves the lack of leadership, ideological vacuity, absence of structure or movement, and the non-application of cultural; political; class; religious and tribal identities in developing feminist theory. In search of capable feminist guardians, the tendency of feminist groups is to co-opt self-actualized African women into feminism with or without their consent, and without regard to the accidental coincidence of those personalities’ narratives with feminist epistemology. Feminism in Africa is in search of relevance within the public space. This paper interrogates these issues and uses the narrative of several self-actualized women in Africa, who have, apparently, been co-opted into feminism as a result, to discuss aspects of the crisis and the delimiting public policy and legislation against, perhaps, the development of feminine identity.

Pandemic, Routine Activities, and Graffiti in Belo Horizonte: Has Social Isolation Led to City Saturation?

The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a series of social isolation measures that reduced the movement of people in public spaces. This condition created a natural experiment to test the theory of routine activities and its applicability in the study of graffiti. Continuing the monitoring carried out in the hypercenter of Belo Horizonte since 2011, this study assesses the impacts of restrictions on the movement of people on the amount of graffiti found in that location. It starts from the hypothesis that the social restriction measures reduced the number of capable guardians (surveillance), expanding the opportunities for the practice of graffiti tagging and, consequently, favoring its expansion. A survey of existing graffiti in the hypercenter was carried out in 2022, and its results were compared with previous surveys conducted in the study area in 2011, 2015, 2017, and 2019, allowing the hypothesis to be tested.

Latent profiles of cyber violence among South Korean adolescents: Applicability of routine activity theory

AbstractThere is a growing concern towards the risk of cyber violence among young digital natives. This study tested the applicability of routine activity theory in the cyber domain using a national sample of 2228 South Korean adolescents. Latent profile analysis was used to identify the conditions of the motivated offender, suitable target, and capable guardian within the online context. Low‐risk, detached norm, and comprehensive‐risk profiles emerged. Binary logistic regression indicated that adolescents in the comprehensive‐risk profile were most likely to experience cyber violence, compared to other profiles. The risk of perpetration was greater for the low‐risk profile than the detached norm profile. This study identified the contexts of youth that heighten the risk of cyber violence and suggested important points of intervention.

Analisis Cyberbullying: Komentar Kebencian Terhadap Pembuat Konten Beauty Influencer di Media Sosial Tiktok

This research discusses cyberbullying in the form of hate comments that befell beauty influencers on Tiktok social media. The phenomenon of cyberbullying and hate speech often occurs on social media and affects content creators, with the aim of convincing, hurting and intimidating someone with the comments they make. The theory used in this research is Routine Activity Theory put forward by Cohen & Felson. According to Cohen & Felson, crime can occur due to 3 factors, namely a motivated perpetrator: a motivated perpetrator, a suitable target: the presence of a suitable target, and a capable guardian: the absence of a guard or supervisor to protect the victim from criminal acts. Data collection techniques were carried out in three ways, namely observation, interviews and literature review. The purpose of this writing is to provide knowledge to readers about the problem of cyberbullying and hate speech and what impacts the victims feel after receiving these hate comments. The results of this research show that the daily routine activities carried out by beauty influencers on social media, both for their work and social life, are vulnerable to making them victims of cyberbullying in the form of hate speech. The hate speech they receive makes them mentally down, making them feel stressed and useless. And the reason the perpetrators make comments like that is because they are motivated by the content from beauty influencers that they see and it creates a feeling of dislike in them.

It takes a village: Guarding against sexual abuse in Australian educational settings

Reporting indicators of child sexual abuse is critical to intervention and prevention. However, guardianship and its mechanisms in educational settings have been empirically neglected. We address this gap by analysing a unique administrative dataset from an Australian jurisdiction that captures alleged improper sexual conduct by school employees against adolescents aged 13–17 years inclusive. We analysed 638 cases reported to an external oversight body in accordance with the New South Wales “reportable conduct” scheme between 2015 and 2019. These cases detailed information about the sources of allegations, including how allegations arose and who brought them forward. Results established school personnel and families as the key reporters and supported young people's potential as capable guardians. Guardianship was highly context-dependent and differed according to event, victim, and perpetrator characteristics. Recommendations for strengthening guardianship in schools are presented, including enabling reporting pathways for students, building contextual awareness through policy dissemination and training, and heeding indirect sources of information like rumours.

Self-Protection in the Social Context: A Daily-Level Examination of Young Adult Women's Perceived Need for and Engagement in Sexual Assault Protective Behavioral Strategies.

Young adult women naturalistically engage in sexual assault protective behavioral strategies (SA-PBS) in an effort to reduce their risk of sexual assault. Despite well-documented sociocontextual risks for sexual assault, it remains largely unknown whether and how social contexts influence SA-PBS use. The present study characterized relations of women's alcohol use and interpersonal contexts with SA-PBS engagement across social events, framed according to Routine Activity Theory. Young adult women from a community sample (N = 174) reported their drinking and social events across 27 daily assessments spanning one year. Multilevel latent class analyses examined variability in SA-PBS, and multinomial regression tested associations of contextual risks with SA-PBS engagement. Results supported three distinct classes of social events characterized by SA-PBS engagement: (1) No or Minimal Use of SA-PBS ("No Use," 26%), (2) No Perceived Reason or Opportunity to Use SA-PBS ("No Reason or Opportunity," 44%), and (3) Any Use of SA-PBS ("Any Use," 30%). Presence of likely offenders (odds ratio [OR] = 4.77, p = .004), absence of capable guardianship (OR = 5.91, p < .001), and greater other's substance intoxication (OR = 1.46, p = .01), as theorized by Routine Activity Theory, increased odds of membership in the "Any Use" relative to "No Use" class. Women's alcohol consumption was not associated with class membership. Women's perceptions of risk in the social environment relate to their likelihood of engaging in SA-PBS. Findings represent an important step toward understanding the social context's role in sexual assault risk and protection.

Mobile guardians: Detection of food fraud with portable spectroscopy methods for enhanced food authenticity assurance

It is often said that “you are what you eat”, and whether this is said in this decade or in 2050 the choices we make about the food we consume can alter our biology. Therefore, knowing exactly what you eat is important for one to maintain a healthy balanced diet. However, as the food industry grows in complexity and struggles to meet the demand of a rapidly increasing population, it is likely that food fraud will pose a much larger threat to the future safety of food industries and consumers. Thus, it is necessary to employ and develop analytical techniques such as infrared and Raman spectroscopy as mobile ‘Capable Guardians’ to reduce this potential risk. Recent advancements in portable spectroscopic instrumentation which can provide rapid on-site measurements show promise, and may have a pivotal role to play in the ongoing saga of food fraud and contamination. Therefore, the objective of this review is to present a comprehensive overview of food fraud and contamination, highlighting the common analytical methods employed for their assessment, with a specific emphasis on the utility of portable handheld spectroscopic instrumentation which in the future can offer guardianship and thus ensure personalised food security.

The New Neighborhood Watch: An Exploratory Study of the Nextdoor App and Crime Narratives

Community members use the Nextdoor App to prevent crime and circulate information when suspicious activity or criminal misconduct is afoot. The Nextdoor App operates like other popular social media platforms, but unlike Facebook and Twitter, it connects citizens based on geography instead of areas of interest. One unique aspect of the app is posting events and perceptions of suspicious behavior and criminal acts. User posts can provide narratives on feelings, incidents, and perceptions of crime in designated neighborhoods. This exploratory study focuses on how community members in an urban Colorado area use the app as a high-tech Neighborhood Watch. A qualitative research approach with a thematic analysis is implemented to examine neighbors’ perceptions of crime events and community safety. The findings depict that citizens engaged in Nextdoor communications are frustrated with petty community incivilities, property crimes, and law enforcement actions. In addition, the results show that lessons in being a capable guardian, possible increases in fear levels, and surveillance activities are important aspects of understanding social media and crime.

Patterns of Child Grooming and Sexual Harassment in Online Games

The purpose of this study is to discuss patterns of child sexual abuse that occur in the online games Minecraft and Hago. The crime of child sexual abuse with the "Online Child Grooming" mode in online games is regarded as an effective method for child predators to lure potential victims. Grooming is a process in which a perpetrator approaches a person or organization gradually through communication relationships with the intent of sexually harassing them. Victims are typically children, adolescents, or adults who are at risk of becoming harassed. This study employs activity routine theory, which assesses the absence of capable guardian factors, motivated actors, and the presence of suitable targets, all of which, if they occur at the same time and place, make child grooming possible. The research was conducted descriptively and qualitatively.

A ROUTINE ACTIVITY APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING THE REASONS FOR TECHNOLOGY-FACILITATED HARASSMENT AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA

The rapid increase in technologies is forcing more people to be online, which is offering perpetrators to commit technology-facilitated harassment (TFH). This paper explores various reasons associated with the rise of TFH cases against women in India by employing routine activity theory (RAT). A conceptual framework is proposed to understand the reasons for technology facilitated- harassment against women (TFHW) in India. This paper adopted a qualitative methodology and observed that accessibility, anonymity, anger, revenge, and political agenda were the vital sources of motivation among perpetrators. The sharing of personal data, underreporting, lack of awareness of laws, negligence, less awareness of technology, gender perception in using the technology, and patriarchal society made women in India suitable targets. Lastly, a lack of effective laws, careless enforcement agencies, and no privacy settings materialised in the absence of a capable guardian. Thus, this paper provides a new perspective on RAT by utilising it on TFHW in India. Further, it will serve as a platform to locate how TFH incidents can be minimised by addressing the reasons in the context of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a capable guardian.

Careful When You Click? How the Dark Triad of Personality Can Influence the Likelihood of Online Crime Victimization

Cybercrime is a growing problem, with increasing numbers of people reporting they have been a victim. However, the literature has tended to focus on the characteristics of the perpetrator and has often neglected to examine how the individual differences of victims may have an impact. This paper investigates how the Dark Triad – Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy – may increase the chances of being a victim of online crime. To do this, the Cyber Routine Activities Theory was applied, which suggests victimization is a result of two things: 1) a user’s routine online activity which may bring them into contact with nefarious others and/or makes them an attractive target, and 2) the lack of a “capable guardian” who can defend against such nefarious others. Using an online survey (N = 328), we measured Internet users’ Dark Triad traits, along with their engagement in various online activities and the preventative measures used against potential criminals. Findings demonstrated that narcissism and psychopathy increased the likelihood of victimization, but Machiavellianism did not. These relationships were moderated by gender. However, contrary to other work using the Cyber-RAT, preventative measures (e.g. knowledge of computers, presence of anti-virus programs) did not seem to impact on the likelihood of victimization. The challenges of using these findings to reduce cybercrime and future work are then discussed.

The National Security Debacle: Escalating the Bald Conversations on Rural Banditry in Northern Nigeria

Scholarly preoccupation with socio-political development in Nigeria appeared to have dwelt more on the fulfillment of great expectations and much less on the uncertainties of social change brought about by democratization in Africa. Thus, when Huntington reflected on the possibility of reversal following the onset of ‘Third wave’ in Africa, the emphasis on social conflict is very instructive in the democratization process of many states in Africa. Whereas some democracies have managed to consolidate or are still democratizing, a few others have relapsed into reverse wave or at best, are caught up in what Thomas Carothers described as “The gray zone”. In Nigeria for example, after almost half a century of democratization, there is rising wave of atavistic consciousness or what Engels described as the “Lowest instinct or passion in man”, where the political space is characterized by rampaging non-state actors. In specific terms, the new wave of dramatic reverses relates to terrorist attacks, ethnic violence, armed banditry, farmers-herders imbroglio, cattle rustling, kidnapping for ransom, and unknown gunmen. In the circumstance, marauders and brigands now reign supreme over what is described as ungoverned space, prompting a convergence of expert opinions that Nigeria is fast degenerating unto a failed state. Among the various descriptions of criminal enterprises in Nigeria, there is scholarly preoccupation with the nuances and pattern of armed banditry. This paper seeks to deepen this preoccupation by scoping the infamy of rural banditry in northern Nigeria. It argues that, beyond the much-touted ethno-religious sentiment and convoluted diversity, the worsening human condition occasioned by the increasing parlous governance situation in the country, are more persuasive in explaining the dramatic wave of criminal enterprises. The theoretical perspective of Cohen and Felson which treat crime as the consequence of the convergence of a motivated offender, a vulnerable target and the absence of capable guardian, comes close to a real-life connotation of rural banditry in northern Nigeria. The paper recommends among others, the urgent need to ups the quality of good governance in order to address the human condition, and that a collaboration among the leadership strata in the wider society must demonstrate sufficient commitment to compliment government efforts in a genuine governance project that seeks to emancipate Nigeria from her current sorry state.

A qualitative study of penetration testers and what they can tell us about information security in organisations

PurposeThis paper presents a qualitative study of penetration testing, the practice of attacking information systems to find security vulnerabilities and fixing them. The purpose of this paper is to understand whether and to what extent penetration testing can reveal various socio-organisational factors of information security in organisations. In doing so, the paper innovates theory by using Routine Activity Theory together with phenomenology of information systems concepts.Design/methodology/approachThe articulation of Routine Activity Theory and phenomenology emerged inductively from the data analysis. The data consists of 24 qualitative interviews conducted with penetration testers, analysed with thematic analysis.FindingsThe starting assumption is that penetration testers are akin to offenders in a crime situation, dealing with targets and the absence of capable guardians. A key finding is that penetration testers described their targets as an installed base, highlighting how vulnerabilities, which make a target suitable, often emerge from properties of the existing built digital environments. This includes systems that are forgotten or lack ongoing maintenance. Moreover, penetration testers highlighted that although the testing is often predicated on planned methodologies, often they resort to serendipitous practices such as improvisation.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to theory, showing how Routine Activity Theory and phenomenological concepts can work together in the study of socio-organisational factors of information security. This contribution stems from considering that much research on information security focuses on the internal actions of organisations. The study of penetration testing as a proxy of real attacks allows novel insights into socio-organisational factors of information security in organisations.

Foreign Tourists as Homicide Victims in Croatia: A Routine Activity Approach

Safety of tourists is highly important in tourism-oriented countries such as Croatia, and the most serious threat to tourists is homicide. This paper examines the factors that have led to the homicides of foreign tourists in Croatia. For this analysis routine activity theory approach and its three key elements are used: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. As there is no official data on crimes against foreign tourists in Croatia, the analysis was conducted using data from the media. The data for this analysis was collected using a questionnaire developed specifically for this purpose. The questionnaire included data on 18 variables, which can be divided into three groups: offender characteristics, victim characteristics and the circumstances of the offence. The analysis showed that three factors had the strongest influence on the commission of foreign tourists’ homicides: they entered quarrels with unknown or little-known people; they consumed large amounts of alcohol with people they did not know well; and they were alone in an unfamiliar environment, far from the police or other people who could help them.

The Effect of the Kumamoto Earthquakes on the Increase of Burglaries

Although the overall crime rate of an area decreases after a major disaster, the occurrence of some types of crime may increase. This may be explained by the routine activity theory, which suggests that the absence of a capable guardian and other factors induce occurrence of crime, such as when houses become temporarily unoccupied due to the evacuation of disaster victims and absence of competent guards. This study used interference analysis to investigate whether the aftermath of the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan, temporarily increased the number of burglaries in the affected areas. Specifically, we examined whether the number of recognized burglaries temporarily increased after the earthquakes by dividing the land in Kumamoto Prefecture into two areas: one with severe earthquake damage and the other with minor damage. Results demonstrated an increase in the number of burglaries in the severely damaged areas in April and May 2016. The impact of the earthquakes was significant in April, but decreased notably in May. Contrastingly, the number of burglaries remained unchanged in areas with minor earthquake damage. Therefore, a correlation was found between the severe damage caused by the earthquakes and the transient increase in the number of burglaries.