Hashish Research Articles

Variations and origin of the atmospheric pollen of Cannabis detected in the province of Tetouan (NW Morocco): 2008–2010

Cannabis, also called marihuana or hemp, is a wind-pollinated plant that produces hundreds of flowers on large inflorescences. It is also one of the oldest psychoactive plants known to humanity. Morocco has become one of the main producers of Cannabis resin (hashish), primarily supplying the European market. The aim of this paper is to ascertain whether the atmospheric monitoring of Cannabis pollen can play a role, from a criminological point of view, in the surveillance of Cannabis cultivation in the area of Tetouan (NW Morocco) as well as to estimate pollen emission so that the sensitive population can be warned about the allergic diseases that its pollen can cause.Aerobiological samplings were made with the aid of a Hirst type volumetric trap (Hirst, 1952), which worked uninterruptedly during a 3-year period (2008–2010) according to the methodology proposed by the Spanish Aerobiology Network, the REA.Cannabis pollen was present in the atmosphere of Tetouan mainly from early April to late August, a period in which about 95% of the annual counts were registered. The highest levels were detected in June and July, with concentrations more or less evenly distributed throughout the day with slight increases of 5% between 12:00 and 16:00h. The strong association between skin test reactivity, respiratory symptoms, and pollination period found by other authors, together with the levels registered, suggests that Cannabis pollen could be a clinically important aeroallergen for sensitive patients. On the other hand, the data obtained could serve as an indicator of the cultivation activity of this species and should be taken into account by the state authorities since they provide strong evidence of the existence of Cannabis crops in the region of Tetouan.

Mitigation of post‐traumatic stress symptoms by Cannabis resin: A review of the clinical and neurobiological evidence

It is known from clinical studies that some patients attempt to cope with the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by using recreational drugs. This review presents a case report of a 19-year-old male patient with a spectrum of severe PTSD symptoms, such as intense flashbacks, panic attacks, and self-mutilation, who discovered that some of his major symptoms were dramatically reduced by smoking cannabis resin. The major part of this review is concerned with the clinical and preclinical neurobiological evidence in order to offer a potential explanation of these effects on symptom reduction in PTSD. This review shows that recent studies provided supporting evidence that PTSD patients may be able to cope with their symptoms by using cannabis products. Cannabis may dampen the strength or emotional impact of traumatic memories through synergistic mechanisms that might make it easier for people with PTSD to rest or sleep and to feel less anxious and less involved with flashback memories. The presence of endocannabinoid signalling systems within stress-sensitive nuclei of the hypothalamus, as well as upstream limbic structures (amygdala), point to the significance of this system for the regulation of neuroendocrine and behavioural responses to stress. Evidence is increasingly accumulating that cannabinoids might play a role in fear extinction and antidepressive effects. It is concluded that further studies are warranted in order to evaluate the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in PTSD.

Identification of hexadecanamide in cannabis resin.

Identification of hexadecanamide in cannabis resin.

The extraction and estimation of the cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. and its products.

Abstract A convenient method for the complete extraction of the cannabinoids from fresh plant material, herbal cannabis, cannabis resin and reefers, has been devised. Chloroform was a more suitable solvent than light petroleum or ethanol and simple shaking of powdered material with the solvent was effective. Fresh material should be air-dried and powdered before extraction. The main cannabinoids in the extract are determined by g.l.c. using androst-4-ene-3,17-dione as internal standard. The coefficient of variation for repeated determinations of THC on a single extract was 1.4%; for all operations, including sampling and extraction, it was 2.7%. Duplicate analyses of 24 samples of herbal cannabis and of 20 reefers, all of varying potency, showed that the errors fell within the expected limits for THC, CBD and CBN. The method is simple and rapid; duplicate determinations can be completed in about 2 1/2 h.

The decomposition of acidic and neutral cannabinoids in organic solvents.

High-pressure liquid chromatography was used to study (a) the relative efficiencies of methanol, chloroform, light petroleum (B.P. 40-60 degrees) and methanol-chloroform (9:1) for extracting neutral and acidic cannabinoids from cannabis resin; (b) the decomposition patterns of the resulting solutions under various storage conditions, and (c) the cannabinoid profile of a cross section through a block of cannabis resin. The results show that (a) methanol is the most effective extracting solvent of those tested; (b) acidic cannabinoids in solution decompose in darkness by varying amounts depending on the temperature, solvent, storage time and particular cannabinoid; (c) neutral cannabinoids in solution are relatively stable in darkness; (d) daylight causes appreciable decomposition of both acidic and neutral cannabinoids in solution, (e) the cannabinoid profile of a resin is complex with lower levels of acidic material in the outer layers.

The stability of cannabis and its preparations on storage.

Solutions of pure cannabinoids, nine samples of herbal and two of resin cannabis (one freshly prepared) were stored in varying conditions for up to 2 years. Exposure to light (not direct sunlight) was shown to be the greatest single factos in loss of cannabinoids especially in solutions, which should therefore be protected from light during analytical and phytochemical operations. Previous claims that solutions in ethanol were stable have not been substantiated. The effect of temperature, up to 20 degrees, was insignificant but air oxidation did lead to significant losses. These could be reduced if care was taken to minimize damage to the glands which act as "well filled, well closed containers". Loss of tetrahydrocannabinol after exposure to light does not lead to an increase in cannabinol, but air oxidation in the dark does. It is concluded that carefully prepared herbal or resin cannabis or extracts are reasonably stable for 1 to 2 years if stored in the dark at room temperature.

Survey Variation in the THC Content of Illicitly Imported Cannabis Products—1984–1989

The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of more than 180 samples of fresh illicit Cannabis products, seized by H.M. Customs and Excise on entry into Great Britain and Northern Ireland over the period 1984-1989, has been determined by gas chromatography. The average THC content of herbal cannabis remained high due to good quality cannabis from Jamaica and the USA, but that of cannabis resin was slightly lower. Resin from Morocco has changed significantly in its physical appearance. There was no fresh seizure of cannabis oil in this period.

Peroxide-Sulphuric Acid Test as an Indication of the Ripeness and Physiological Activity of Cannabis Resin

Peroxide-Sulphuric Acid Test as an Indication of the Ripeness and Physiological Activity of Cannabis Resin

Forensic aspects of the metabolism and excretion of cannabinoids following oral ingestion of cannabis resin.

Following oral ingestion of cannabis resin, delta 9-THC-11-oic acid and its O-ester glucuronide were detected using RIA and combined hplc/RIA and shown to be major plasma metabolites of delta 9-THC. delta 9-THC-11-oic acid was not excreted in the urine in significant concentrations, the glucuronide conjugate being the major urinary metabolite detected. delta 9-THC metabolites were detected in blood for up to 5 days and in urine for up to 12 days following a single oral dose of delta 9-THC (20 mg). Estimates for the half life of delta 9-THC-11-oic acid and its glucuronide in plasma, and total metabolites in urine have been obtained. Interpretation of blood or urine total cannabinoid levels is most difficult, however, drug/metabolite ratios and metabolite/metabolite ratios may have potential for indicating recent cannabis use.

Rodney Warren Rickards 1934 - 2007

Rod Rickards graduated with first class honours from the University of Sydney in 1955 and began his academic career at the University of Manchester in close association with Arthur Birch. In 1966 he returned to Australia to a foundation appointment in the Research School of Chemistry at the Australian National University, where he spent the remainder of his career. His research was primarily concerned with the organic and biological chemistry of compounds of medical, biological, agricultural and veterinary importance, and was characterized by an integration of organic synthesis, biomimetic synthesis, structural and stereochemical studies, and biosynthetic studies using isotopically labelled precursors in vivo. His interests ranged widely and included antibiotics, regulatory factors that initiate antibiotic production and control cell differentiation and sexuality in microorganisms, elicitors that communicate between bacteria and plants, mammalian hormones of the prostaglandin group that control many aspects of human physiology, juvenile hormones, which mediate the development and reproductive physiology of higher dipteran insects and the therapeutically active components of Cannabis resin.

Cannabinoids lead to enhanced virulence of the smallpox vaccine (vaccinia) virus

Indian hemp is used since thousands of years as herbal drug. We found that a single dose of cannabis resin was equally active as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) enhancing severity and duration of symptoms in vaccinia virus infected mice. Cowpox virus did not cause symptomatic disease, but some reduction of specific antibody production was observed in drug treated animals. In vitro cannabis was superior to THC alone at inhibiting mitogen stimulated proliferation of human and mouse spleen cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Also resin sub-fractions other than THC, cannabidiol and cannabinol, recovered also from cigarette smoke, were found inhibitory, suggesting additional involvement of constituents other than psychoactive THC. The immunoregulatory effects must be differentiated from apoptotic effects on spleen cells and lymphocytic mouse cell lines, which were observed with resin and THC but not with cannabidiol or cannabinol. A significant contribution of cytotoxic effects seems unlikely as drug treated lymphocytes were still capable of producing cytokines after T-cell receptor-specific stimulation. Considering a recent case of unusually severe cowpox virus infection in a young drug taker these data confirm a risk of “soft drugs” for acquiring poxvirus infection or enhancing side effects of the smallpox vaccine and perhaps also other live vaccines.

Attempted ignition of petrol vapour by lit cigarettes and lit cannabis resin joints

A recent murder enquiry prompted experimentation to confirm and visually demonstrate that lit cigarettes are not a viable source of ignition of petrol vapour. In addition, tests comprising the attempted ignition of petrol vapour using hot and smouldering cannabis resin were also undertaken. A series of experiments was also designed to recreate circumstances specific to the crime under investigation by undertaking cigarette/joint ignition tests involving a mannequin clothed in a cotton garment onto which petrol was applied. The ultimate aim of the experiments was to produce a visual aid for use during court proceedings. Thirty nine (39) ignition attempts that involved exposing lit commercial cigarettes, hand-rolled cigarettes and cannabis resin joints to petrol vapour were undertaken; ignition was not achieved in any of the scenarios. In addition, a single attempt to ignite petrol vapour emanating from a pool of liquid fuel was effected with a smouldering piece of cannabis resin; no ignition occurred. In all cases the petrol was clearly present within the limits of flammability since ignition was subsequently effected using a naked flame.

Long term stability of cannabis resin and cannabis extracts

The aim of the present study was to investigate the stability of cannabinoids in cannabis resin slabs and cannabis extracts upon long-term storage. The levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabigerol (CBG) on both neutral and acidic form were measured at room temperature, 4°C and −20°C for up to 4 years. Acidic THC degrades exponentially via decarboxylation with concentration halve-lives of approximately 330 and 462 days in daylight and darkness, respectively. The degradation of neutral THC seems to occur somewhat slower. When cannabinoids were stored in extracted form at room temperature the degradation rate of acidic THC increased significantly relative to resin material with concentration halve-lives of 35 and 91 days in daylight and darkness, respectively. Once cannabis material is extracted into organic solvents, care should be taken to avoid the influence of sunlight.

The endocannabinoid system as a target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease

The Cannabis sativa plant has been exploited for medicinal, agricultural and spiritual purposes in diverse cultures over thousands of years. Cannabis has been used recreationally for its psychotropic properties, while effects such as stimulation of appetite, analgesia and anti-emesis have lead to the medicinal application of cannabis. Indeed, reports of medicinal efficacy of cannabis can been traced back as far as 2700 BC, and even at that time reports also suggested a neuroprotective effect of the cultivar. The discovery of the psychoactive component of cannabis resin, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(9)-THC) occurred long before the serendipitous identification of a G-protein coupled receptor at which Delta(9)-THC is active in the brain. The subsequent finding of endogenous cannabinoid compounds, the synthesis of which is directed by neuronal excitability and which in turn served to regulate that excitability, further widened the range of potential drug targets through which the endocannabinoid system can be manipulated. As a result of this, alterations in the endocannabinoid system have been extensively investigated in a range of neurodegenerative disorders. In this review we examine the evidence implicating the endocannabinoid system in the cause, symptomatology or treatment of neurodegenerative disease. We examine data from human patients and compare and contrast this with evidence from animal models of these diseases. On the basis of this evidence we discuss the likely efficacy of endocannabinoid-based therapies in each disease context.

Intoxications accidentelles par cannabis chez l’enfant : expérience du centre antipoison de Marseille

To assess the frequency and severity of accidental cannabis poisoning in children. A retrospective study of cases of accidental cannabis poisoning in people aged under 18 years old, reported to the Marseille poison center from 1993 through 2007. We excluded cases where cannabis was definitively ruled out, and neonatal withdrawal syndromes in newborns from cannabis users. We collected 93 cases, including 56 boys and 37 girls, 86% of whom were younger than 3 years. The principal form was cannabis resin (hashish), reported in 80% of the cases and belonging to one of the parents or a household member. In almost all cases, the poisoning took place at the child's home. The frequency has risen in recent years, with 2/3 of the cases occurred in the second half of the study period. Five serious cases were reported, two with convulsions. Considering the observed increase in cases each year, mostly benign but potentially serious, prevention and information efforts have to be improved for drug users with young children and for healthcare professionals led to manage this kind of accident.

Endocannabinoids: Stress, Anxiety, and Fear

Endocannabinoids: Stress, Anxiety, and Fear

On hashish

On hashish

Haematotoxic evaluation of crude <I>Cannabis</I> resin in rats

After chronic administration of crude Cannabis resin (CCR), (20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg) to Spraque-Dawley albino rats for 21 days, the changes in various haematological indices such as packed cell volume (PVC), total leukocyte count, differential leukocyte count, red blood cell (RBC) count, absolute lymphocyte count, monocyte count, neutrophils and eosinophil counts were evaluated. The results show that the haematological indices such as erythrocytic and leucocytic counts were not significantly (P

GETTING THE FACTS RIGHT: A REPLY TO SMITH (2005)

Neil Smith [1] makes some interesting comments on our editorial [2] on cannabis potency in Europe that not only add usefully to the ongoing debate, but also illustrate further the complex set of issues with which this topic presents us. We would reiterate that, within this complexity, it is easy to forget the simple point we make in our original paper: it remains unclear that even if higher potency cannabis is available it may not necessarily lead to an increase dose exposure—and this remains an important issue for further research. Smith introduces the role of cannabidiol (CBD) as an interesting new dimension to the debate about cannabis potency. If we accept that CBD acts as an antagonist of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), then there would be some cause for concern if, as suggested, CBD levels have remained constant as the THC content of some forms of cannabis has increased. It is certainly true that while THC may be analysed routinely in many countries, few measurements are made of CBD. The only recent published data come from the University of Mississippi Project [3] where the levels of cannabinoids including THC and CBD were reported in cannabis, cannabis resin and other samples submitted for analysis over the period 1980–97. If we focus only on the cannabis samples (i.e. marihuana and sinsemilla) then there is a statistically significant positive correlation between the annual mean THC and CBD concentrations (r = 0.56; n = 36; P < 0.001). Only about 5% of the cannabis samples examined were sinsemilla. If these relatively few measurements are excluded, then the correlation coefficient for the annual means (THC: CBD, marihuana, n = 18) rises to r = 0.81. Within each correlation, we can assume that a large part of the statistical scatter arises from experimental uncertainties in the measurement of both THC and CBD. As discussed in our earlier report [4], there are a number of factors that currently lead to difficulties in the accurate analysis of THC. There will inevitably be additional uncertainties in the measurement of CBD. We conclude that this evidence shows that, at least in herbal cannabis, the level of CBD increases in parallel with THC rather than remaining constant. An aspect not mentioned by Smith is that CBD is present in much higher levels in cannabis resin. Based on the same data from ElSohly et al. [3], the average THC/CBD ratio in marihuana in that 18-year period was 12.2; in resin the ratio was closer to unity. In other words, if CBD offers some protective effect against THC then we should expect that those who smoke resin would suffer less harm than those who smoke herbal cannabis. As far as we are aware, no studies have been carried out that could shed light on this hypothesis. A caveat must be included that the situation regarding THC/CBD ratios found in the United States may differ from those in Europe if only because both cannabis and cannabis resin in the United States originate from different geographical areas to those products in Europe. The suggestion by Smith that the half-life of cannabinoids might be affected by potency seems less convincing. It is misleading to say that ‘lower potency cannabis has been shown to have a half-life of around 20–30 hours in human participants…’. It is only meaningful to refer to the half-lives of specified psychoactive substances. The plasma half-life of THC is 1.5–2 hours [5]. By contrast, THC metabolites may be detected in the urine for up to 1 or 2 weeks. By analogy with other drugs, we might expect that a higher body burden of a foreign substance could saturate the metabolic systems responsible for degradation and would therefore lead to a longer, not a shorter half-life. The analogy of the benzodiazepines is equally misleading because they represent a family of chemically and pharmacologically distinct entities. There is no evidence that the active constituents in high-potency cannabis are qualitatively different to those in low potency material. Finally, we stand by our comment that the facts of this matter, as weak as they may be, are less alarming than they have sometimes been presented. This does not mean that we are suggesting we should be complacent on this issue. We recognize that important questions for public health are raised by current cannabis consumption patterns, and our editorial identifies a number of important information needs. However, if complacency may not be called for, scientific caution certainly is; a meaningful public health debate on cannabis use is not possible if the evidence it is based on is found, when scrutinized, to be lacking.

Distribution of the principal cannabinoids within bars of compressed cannabis resin

Determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, after extraction into hexane, of the relative amounts of the three most abundant cannabinoids, cannabidiol (CBD), Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9-THC) and cannabinol (CBN), and the six next most abundant compounds in cannabis resin all showed significant variations in their relative amounts with sampling position. Thus, data from a single sub-sample cannot be regarded as characteristic of a cannabis resin bar or without further evidence of coming from a particular resin bar or batch of bars. A cannabis resin bar stored under ambient conditions for 12 months showed major loss of Δ 9-THC and an increase in CBN content as well as variations in composition with sampling position.