Cannabis Cultivation Research Articles

A Review of Hydroponics and Conventional Agriculture Based on Energy and Water Consumption, Environmental Impact, and Land Use

The increasing demand for food, the lack of natural resources and arable land, and the recent restrictions on energy consumption require an immediate solution in terms of agricultural activities. This paper’s objective was to review hydroponics (a new soilless cultivation technology) and compare it with conventional agriculture (soil cultivation) regarding its environmental impact and water and energy consumption. The soil loss, the crop/soil contamination, and the greenhouse gas emissions were the criteria for the environmental comparison of conventional agriculture and hydroponics. As for resource consumption, the water consumption rates (L/kg), energy consumption rates (kWh), and energy required (kW) were the criteria for comparing conventional agriculture with hydroponics. Tomato and cannabis cultivation were used as case studies in this review. The review results showed that the advantages of hydroponics over conventional cultivation include zero-soil cultivation, land-use efficiency, planting environment cleanliness, fertilizer and resource saving, water consumption reduction, and conservation. The disadvantages of hydroponics versus conventional cultivation were found to include the high investment costs, technical know-how requirements, and higher amount of demanded energy.

Indoor monoterpene emission rates from commercial cannabis cultivation facilities in Colorado

ABSTRACT In 2019, an air emissions field sampling study was conducted by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment’s Air Pollution Control Division (APCD) at four commercial cannabis cultivation facilities. Measurements of ambient biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOC) concentrations were collected from various growing stages of cannabis (vegetative and flowering) and during post-harvest activities (drying and trimming). These data were then used to determine room-specific biogenic VOC emission rates for three of the facilities from the vegetative stage of the life cycle through post-harvest activities. This study shows that the magnitude of biogenic VOC emissions within a cannabis cultivation facility varies widely with the highest emission rates of up to 7.18E–1 kg/hr found during mechanical trimming and up to 2.33E–1 kg/hr in the drying rooms. These were up to an order of magnitude higher than emission rates found in the cultivation rooms. For example, Facility A vegetative room had an emissions rate of 1.46E–2 kg/hr. Normalized by the amount of biomass present, the drying rooms had the highest VOC emissions rates, with a maximum rate of 1.6E–3 kg/hr/kg biomass. The flowering room rates were found to be up to 3.25E–4 kg/hr/kg biomass and drying rooms up to 1.16E–3 kg/hr/kg biomass. When normalized by plant count, emission rates in the flower rooms ranged from 8.11E–6 to 3.62E–4 kg/hr/plant. The dominant monoterpenes from sampling were β-myrcene, terpinolene, and D-limonene. These data suggest that the variability in emission rates across cannabis production will create a challenge in establishing a generalized emission factor for all facilities. Across the industry, cannabis cultivation conditions and strategies can vary widely impacting the amount and type of VOC emissions. Minimizing uncertainties for VOC emission from cannabis facilities requires site-specific information on air exchange rates, plant counts, cannabis strains, biomass, and if hand or mechanical processing is used. Implications: This study found that the magnitude of biogenic VOC emissions within a cannabis cultivation varies widely throughout rooms found in the facility, with the highest emissions found during post-harvest activities (i.e. trimming) and the lowest rates in the vegetative room. These data suggest that the large emission sources of VOCs are found post-harvest and emission inventories based solely on cultivation emissions will underestimate total biogenic VOC emissions from indoor cannabis cultivation facilities. The dominant measured terpenes throughout all facilities from cultivation to post harvest were: β-myrcene, terpinolene, and D-limonene.

Water demands of permitted and unpermitted cannabis cultivation in Northern California

Illicit water use for irrigated agriculture can have substantial impacts on the environment and complicates water management decision-making. Water demand for illicit cannabis farming in California has long been considered a threat to watershed health, yet an accounting of cannabis irrigation has remained elusive, thereby impeding effective water policy for the state’s nascent legal cannabis industry. Using data obtained from both permitted and unpermitted cultivation operations, the current study applies novel water-use models to cannabis farms in Northern California to estimate their cumulative and relative water footprints. Our results indicated substantial variation in total water extraction volumes for cannabis farming between watersheds and that most cannabis water use was concentrated in a subset of watersheds, rather than evenly spread across the landscape. Water extraction volumes for unpermitted cannabis were consistently greater than permitted cannabis in the dry season, when streams are most vulnerable to impacts from water diversions. Results from scenario modeling exercises indicated that if all existing unpermitted farms were to become permitted and comply with regulations that prohibit surface water diversions in the dry season, nearly one third (34 of 115) of the study watersheds would experience a 50% reduction in dry season water extraction. In comparison, modest expansion of off-stream storage by all cannabis farms could reduce dry season extraction by 50% or greater in more than three quarters (96 of 115) of study watersheds. Combining diversion limits with enhanced storage could achieve dry season extraction reductions of 50% or greater in 100 of 115 watersheds. Our findings suggest that efforts to address the environmental impacts of unpermitted cultivation should focus on watersheds with greatest water demands and that programs that support expansion of off-stream storage can be helpful for reducing pressures on the environment and facilitating the transition of unpermitted farms to the regulated market.

Need for speed: a breakthrough speed breeding protocol for hemp

Need for speed: a breakthrough speed breeding protocol for hemp

Preparation, Extraction, and Processing of Water-Retted Cannabis Sativa L. Fibers

ABSTRACT Cellulose fibers come from fast-growing renewable crops which characteristically are sustainable making them a desirable option for textile structures. Commercial medical Cannabis cultivation is a fast-growing market. Marijuana stems, which are often discarded or burnt, due to the absence of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) provide an opportunity for the manufacturing of fibers. In this manuscript, the physical, chemical, morphological, and mechanical properties of Cannabis sativa L. stems, coming from medicinal marijuana grown crops, were analyzed to assess their viability for textile use. The content of hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, and cellulose in the fibers was assessed, and we found that the mechanical properties of these fibers are comparable to those of similar natural fibers such as coconut, hemp, sisal, and jute. The FTIR spectra showed all characteristic peaks present in most cellulosic substrates. We demonstrated that cellulosic fibers can be obtained via water-retting of marijuana plants hence opening an avenue for the utilization of agricultural waste in a myriad of potential applications such as water filtration, packaging, and rheological modifiers.Abbreviation: Terms: THC (tetrahydrocannabinol); CBD (cannabidiol); PVC (polyvinyl chlorides); SEM (scanning electron microscopy); FTIR (Fourier transform infrared).

Unlocking the Socioeconomic Advantages of Cannabis Sativa L. Legalization in African Countries: An In-Depth Review

Cannabis sativa L., an annual, dioecious, short-day plant from the Cannabaceae family, presents versatile applications encompassing cannabinoids and terpenes for medicinal or recreational utilization, as well as oil production for culinary, cosmetic, and animal feed purposes. Additionally,the plant's resilient fiber can be processed as paper, biodegradable plastics, textiles, and as construction materials (i.e., hempcrete). On a global scale, the cannabis market is projected to attain a value of $272 billion by 2028. Despite its considerable potential, some countries, including African nations, uphold prohibition due to entrenched stigma, curtailing Africa's potential involvement in the cannabis industry. Unlike regions such as the United States and Europe, where outdoor cannabis cultivation occurs once annually, Africa's climatic conditions and fertile soils allow for up to three growth cycles each year, positioning the continent as a potential frontrunner in global cannabis production. This prospect holds the potential to significantly enhance Africa's socioeconomic development by fostering job creation, addressing youth unemployment, increasing its GPD, and spurring infrastructure development. However, these inherent advantages remain underutilized due to an enduring lack of cannabis education programs that can counteract social stigma. We recommend African countries to contemplate emulating the 2018 US Farm Bill, which allows the cultivation of cannabis cultivars with diminished levels of Δ9-THC (up to 0.3%), commonly known as hemp. Hemp possesses diverse applications, encompassing medicinal uses involving CBD, THCV, CBG and other non-psychotropic cannabinoids, alongside fiber, feed, and oil production. This strategic step could yield substantial job prospects and entrepreneurial ventures, potentially generating an annual revenue surpassing $7.0 billion from cannabis and hemp flower sales exclusively.

Hemp seeds: Nutritional value, associated bioactivities and the potential food applications in the Colombian context.

For many years, Colombia was one of the countries with the largest illegal cultivation of cannabis around the world. Currently, it is going through a period of transition with a new government law that recently allows the cultivation, transformation, and commercialization of such plant species. In this sense, the identification of strategies for the valorization of products or by-products from Cannabis sativa represent a great opportunity to improve the value chain of this crop. One of these products is hemp seeds, which are exceptionally nutritious and rich in healthy lipids (with high content of three polyunsaturated fatty acids: linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, and gamma-linolenic acid), good quality protein, and several minerals. In addition, hemp seeds contain THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) or CBD (cannabidiol) in traces, molecules that are responsible for the psychoactive and therapeutic properties of cannabis. These low terpenophenolic contents make it more attractive for food applications. This fact, together with the constant search for proteins of vegetable origin and natural food ingredients, have aroused an important interest in the study of this biomass. Some bioactivities of phytochemical compounds (polyphenols and terpenoids, mainly) present in hemp seeds have provided antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review summarizes and discusses the context of hemp use in Latin-American and the new opportunities for hemp seeds culture in Colombia considering the valuable nutritional value, main functional bioactivities, and recent advances in food market applications of hemp seeds.

A novel paper‐based microfluidic device and UV‐visible spectroscopy coupled method for the field detection and analysis of seized marijuana samples

AbstractCannabis is recorded to be the most used drug in the world. This causes a lot of difficulties for developing countries to curb the illegal cultivation, sale, and use of cannabis. The main psychoactive component of the cannabis plant is D9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The introduction of mobile forensic labs has greatly increased the testing efficiency of psychotropic substances, but the traditional methods of analysis might seem to be cumbersome for the individual experimenting with the scene of seizure. The incorporation of portable analytical devices in forensic field analysis is the approach in the right direction for the testing of drugs. In this paper, we introduce a paper‐based microfluidic device for the onsite detection of marijuana. The device comprises the fast blue B reagent (FBB) as the main reagent. The µPAD was used for the successful detection of seized marijuana. The µPAD‐based detection was combined with a UV‐Vis spectroscopic confirmation. The computational modeling of the absorbance spectra gave further insights into the product formation during the reaction of THC and FBB. This novel method helps in a faster analysis of marijuana, at a considerably lower cost; which is a great boost to the forensic community and the law enforcement authority.

Cannabis sativa: Release of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Affecting Air Quality

This review paper highlights about the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of Cannabis plants. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a large group of chemicals harmful to human health that are readily released into the atmosphere and participate in atmospheric photochemical reactions. Floral Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are often involved in defence and pollinator attraction. Cannabis cultivation and consumption may lead to additional environmental impacts. Studies found out that Cannabis plants emit a significant amount of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) which could cause indoor air quality issues. Indoor Cannabis cultivation is energy-consuming, mainly due to heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and lighting. Energy consumption leads to greenhouse gas emissions. Common compounds to all the tested hemp cultivars include β-myrcene, ϒ-caryophyllene, α-pinene, β-pinene and limonene, reflecting species specificity in the emission of these compounds. β-Myrcene was the most abundant compound in most of the outside hemp cultivars. The terpenes had an earthy musky, and fruity smell may contribute to the odour in Cannabis samples at the vegetative stage, flowering stage, and drying/curing stage. All hemp cultivars are the prolific emitters of terpenoids. The oxidation of highly reactive Biogenic Volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) from Cannabis plants can lead to the formation of ozone and secondary Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (e.g., formaldehyde and acrolein). In hemp production, considerable odorous emissions occur during field retting. However, more research is needed to address how outdoor air quality is influenced by Cannabis cultivation facilities (CCFs) emissions.

A comprehensive review of the production technology of Cannabis sativa L. with its current legal status and botanical features

Cannabis sativus L. is an annual, deciduous, dimorphic, flowering plant that is distributed all over the world. Despite its tremendous and handy usage in medicinal and other areas, the cultivation, production, and trade of cannabis are illegal in most of the countries. It is so because of some of its harmful side effects on human health when consumed haphazardly or addictively. Following the declaration made by the UN Assembly, some countries, including the Republic of South Africa, Canada, Germany, Australia, Colombia, and Indonesia, have legalized the indoor cultivation and production of cannabis, as well as cannabis-based products. Cannabis can thrive in a wide range of climatic and ecological conditions. Cannabis can be propagated via seeds, cuttings, grafting, micropropagation, etc. The plants are mainly cultivated for their chemical constituents like tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol, cannabinol, etc., which are extracted from their dried flowers. This study illustrates the production technology, current legal status, and botanical characteristics of Cannabis sativus.

Medical Cannabis sativa (Marijuana or drug type): Psychoactive molecule, Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)

This review paper highlights about Medical Cannabis sativa (Marijuana or drug type) containing psychoactive molecule, Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) as a part of educational awareness programme in India. Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica were originally a native of India growing as a wild notorious noxious weed in the Indian Himalayan region. Marijuana (Charas, Ganja and Bhang in India) is a mind-altering (psychoactive) drug, produced by the Cannabis sativa plant. Marijuana (Charas, Ganja or Bhang drink in India) is an illicit drug containing very high levels (25-35%) of narcotic psychoactive molecule, Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) is banned and prohibited in India. Import, export, local sales and cultivation of Cannabis are illegal and prohibited in India. Phytocannabinoids (Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol-Δ9-THC, and Cannabidiol- CBD) have attained a global attention recently due to the therapeutic potentials in Parkinson’s disease, Schizophrenia, cancers, pain, anxiety, depression other neurological disorders as well as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of Epidiolex for Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gauss Syndrome. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) is known as the substance that makes a person feel a “high,” while Cannabidiol (CBD) often promotes a feeling of relaxation. However, the adverse effects of Marijuana (medicinal cannabis) comes from studies of recreational users of marijuana led to the impaired short-term memory; impaired motor coordination; altered judgment; and paranoia or psychosis at high doses. The quality control of Cannabis products, contamination and adulteration of Cannabis products in Cannabis industry is another major issue. Therefore, a detailed study with clinical trials is warranted and this knowledge should be shared and explained to the customers.

Cannabis, Communities, and Place: (Re)constructing Humboldt’s Post-Prohibition Present

Since 1990, many Cal Poly Humboldt faculty and students have made cannabis the focus of scholarship and learning. This work has been shaped by the political, economic, and cultural legacies of cannabis in Humboldt County. Scholarly interest spans multiple dimensions of cannabis cultivation, commerce, consumption, and related social issues. As a multidisciplinary team of scholars, Cal Poly Humboldt faculty affiliated with the Humboldt Institute for Interdisciplinary Marijuana Research (HIIMR) have also shaped the Bachelor of Arts in Cannabis Studies that will launch in Fall 2023. This is the first social science degree program in the United States with this orientation. In this article we trace the origins of cannabis scholarship and learning at Cal Poly Humboldt from a period of domestic cannabis prohibition to the recent period of industry legalization. We also provide an overview of the BA program links to local and state policy and other contexts. Finally, we discuss cultivation communities and strategies of resilience in the context of economic turmoil as a result of legalization.

Fungal Infection Diseases- Nightmare for Cannabis Industries: Artificial Intelligence Applications

This review paper highlights the fungal diseases of both indoor and outdoor Cannabis cultivation environments and discusses the Artificial intelligence (AI) based crop disease detection and management. Some of the fungal pathogen that can attack Cannabis crops are Botrytis, Alternaria, Fusarium, Penicillium, Cladosporium, and Aspergillus. Fungal diseases are Powdery Mildew, Damping off, and Mildew. Of these fungal pathogens, the most common inflorescence disease is gray mold, caused by Botrytis cinerea. Botrytis cinerea and Erysiphe species complex are currently the most widespread pathogens of Cannabis worldwide. The greatest challenge facing Cannabis and hemp producers is the management of insect pests and pathogens that attack the roots, leaves and inflorescences. Pathogens are a pain in the neck of every Cannabis breeder. They affect the quality and quantity of yield, thus defeating the aim of cultivation. The common disease management strategies are-remove and destroy infected plants. Irradiate dried buds with gamma or electro-beam radiation. Another method is to apply biological control agents at rooting and vegetative stages of growth. Pesticides have been found in all Cannabis products, from flowers to edibles, vapes, and smokes. The pesticide pandemic in the Cannabis industry needs urgent attention. Cannabis can contain fungal pathogens and residues of pesticides, fungicides that cause serious and often fatal infections in persons with immunocompromised conditions, such as cancer, transplant, or infection with HIV. Contamination of Cannabis plants and products (i.e., recreational- and pharmaceutical-grades) with mycotoxigenic organisms, including species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, pose serious challenges. The manual Cannabis disease identification process is time-consuming and tedious work. Instead, automated methods save both time and effort. The technology of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the detection and management of disease has already been employed in many crops. The machine learning (ML)-based models were proposed for the identification and classification of plant diseases. The PlantVillage dataset is the largest and most studied plant disease dataset, which is used as a reference for the disease detection and management of plant diseases.

A Survey of Modern Greenhouse Technologies and Practices for Commercial Cannabis Cultivation

A Survey of Modern Greenhouse Technologies and Practices for Commercial Cannabis Cultivation

Towards dsRNA-integrated protection of medical Cannabis crops: considering human safety, recent- and developing RNAi methods, and research inroads.

Owing to the expanding industry of medical Cannabis, we discuss recent milestones in RNA interference (RNAi)-based crop protection research and development that are transferable to medical Cannabis cultivation. Recent and prospective increases in pest pressure in both indoor and outdoor Cannabis production systems, and the need for effective nonchemical pest control technologies (particularly crucial in the context of cultivating plants for medical purposes), are discussed. We support the idea that developing RNAi tactics towards protection of medical Cannabis could play a major role in maximizing success in this continuously expanding industry. However, there remain critical knowledge gaps, especially with regard to RNA pesticide biosafety from a human toxicological viewpoint, as a result of the medical context of Cannabis product use. Furthermore, efforts are needed to optimize transformation and micropropagation of Cannabis plants, examine cutting edge RNAi techniques for various Cannabis-pest scenarios, and investigate the combined application of RNAi- and biological control tactics in medical Cannabis cultivation. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Cannabis policy in The Netherlands: Rationale and design of an experiment with a controlled legal (‘closed’) cannabis supply chain

Since the Dutch tolerance policy, allowing the purchase of cannabis in ‘coffeeshops’, is associated with problems of public order and safety as well as health risks, there has been a long debate about legalisation of cannabis production and supply. It was therefore decided to conduct an experiment with a controlled legal (‘closed’) cannabis supply chain for recreational use. This is of international relevance in view of the current illegal cannabis exports from the Netherlands, the importance of sharing knowledge about the effectiveness of cannabis policies, and the accumulation of evidence needed to evaluate and update international treaties. Here we describe and discuss the background, general approach and design of the experiment.An independent expert committee elaborated how the closed chain will operate and be evaluated, based on the experience with the medicinal cannabis chain, and round table discussions with stakeholders (mayors, coffeeshop owners, cannabis consumers, growers, regulators, scientists, and addiction experts).Ten trusted cannabis growers are contracted to produce and supply cannabis to the coffeeshops in intervention municipalities, with product quality control, law enforcement against criminal interference, and preventive efforts to reduce health risks being implemented. No changes will be made in the cannabis supply to the coffeeshops in participating control municipalities. A process evaluation will assess whether the chain from production to sale in the intervention municipalities was really closed. In a quasi-experimental study comparing intervention and control municipalities, the chain's effects on public health, cannabis-related crime, safety and public nuisance will be estimated.The fieldwork period is expected to start early 2024 and will take four years, including reporting to the government and parliament. These will then decide whether and what further steps towards legalisation of the production and supply of cannabis will be taken.

One for you, one for me: cannabis self-cultivation in Italy

ABSTRACT Background There are no Italian studies on the self-production of marijuana. Objectives Finding out about the various aspects of small-scale marijuana cultivation from the point of view of the growers. Methods Semi-structured questionnaire administered to a convenience sample. Results One-third had cultivated their plants indoors in their own or friends’ homes, the remainder had cultivated outdoors. The interviewees cultivated to obtain a better quality product, out of love for the marijuana plant, to save money, to alleviate health problems, for ethical reasons, to combat the narcomafia. One in three had sold marijuana to make a profit, to improve sociality, or out of solidarity. Customers were found through friends or word of mouth. Economic factors (quality, commercial value, quantity, costs, production times) were the main considerations for the definition of the selling price. Conclusion Our data highlight the distinction between the world of the self-producer and the illicit drug market.

Lebanese Cannabis: Agronomic and Essential Oil Characteristics as Affected by Sowing Date and Irrigation Practice

A field experiment was carried out in Lebanon to assess the agronomic and essential oil characteristics of cannabis as affected by sowing date and irrigation practice. The experiment consisted of a split-plot design with the water regime being the main factor (Iopt-irrigated when the readily available soil water is depleted; I50- receiving 50% of the irrigation amounts in Iopt treatments) and sowing date as the sub-plot factor (mid-April; end of April; mid-May). Biometric and seed quality parameters of the cannabis crop were determined. The essential oils (EO) of the inflorescence were subjected to a multivariate analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). The obtained results revealed that the aboveground fresh biomass, the dry matter, and the plant height were 55.08%, 59.62%, and 43.11% higher in Iopt than in I50, respectively. However, the EO content was neither statistically affected by the irrigation regime nor by the sowing date. Under early sowing, both the water-use efficiency (WUE) for biomass and the EO production reached their highest values. All treatments presented a similar seed composition except that the crude fat and crude protein content were more elevated in Iopt than in I50 treatments. The main extracted essential oils in cannabis inflorescence corresponded to twenty-six identified compounds representing 79.34% of the monoterpenes and 81.25% of the sesquiterpenes. The monoterpenes were highly correlated with the irrigation treatment and early-April sowing while the sesquiterpenes were better enhanced under I50 and end of April to mid-May sowing. The study reveals that agronomic practices lead to differential responses of pharmacologically useful plant compounds for improved health benefits. Further research is required to clarify the potential for cannabis cultivation in Lebanon.

Book Review: World Wide Weed: Global Trends in Cannabis Cultivation and its Control by Tom Decorte, Gary R. Potter & Martin Bouchard, editors

Book Review: World Wide Weed: Global Trends in Cannabis Cultivation and its Control by Tom Decorte, Gary R. Potter & Martin Bouchard, editors

Women in the Marijuana Industry

This paper explores the experiences of women involved with rural marijuana production in Northern California. Using grounded theory analysis, my research explores patterns and trends in the daily lives of women participants in the growing community. Multiple dimensions are explored, highlighting divisions of labor, gender, social networking, and elements of power and class. My research aims to provide a rich and highly textured portrait of various women as they operate from different positions within a legally ambiguous economy. Though the federal government continues to judge marijuana cultivation and distribution to be illegal, the marijuana industry thrives in the progressively tolerant California state environment where it is emerging as a significant source of commerce.