Dog Behavior Research Articles

Evaluation of current practices for dogs engaged in assistance and therapy support programs within Australia

Evaluation of current practices for dogs engaged in assistance and therapy support programs within Australia

Investigating individual learning behaviour of dogs during a yes/no detection task

Detection dogs are frequently tested for their ability to detect a variety of targets. It is crucial to comprehend the processes for odour learning and the consequences of training on an expanding set of target scents on performance. To properly evaluate their ability to identify the target, the only true measure is the dogs' initial response to novel sources, since this excludes learning effects. In this study, we evaluated the individual learning processes of three detection dogs that were pre-trained to differentially respond to a faecal sample of a mare in oestrus (S+) and a faecal sample of the same mare in di-oestrus (S-). After reaching criterion during a test with known training samples, the dogs were tested for generalization to a novel source. Average responses to S+ and S- were calculated as a function of presentation sequence, and Signal Detection Theory was used to further analyse characteristic differences in learning. The results of this study suggest that the ability of individual scent detection dogs to learn within an olfactory discrimination test varies considerably. The information obtained in this study could be helpful for mitigation training. We show that through careful monitoring of individual learning processes, the strategy each dog followed becomes apparent: especially the observations on the dogs' responses to first encounters with novel sample sources. This provides us with more detailed information than the more traditional sensitivity and specificity measures and allows us to better predict the dog's capabilities.

Intergenerational Transmission of Human Parenting Styles to Human-Dog Relationships.

Parenting style and intergenerational transmission have been extensively studied in parent-child relationships. As dogs are increasingly recognized as integral members of the family system, there is a growing interest in understanding how parenting behaviors directed towards dogs can also influence a dog's behaviors. However, the reasons why people adopt certain parenting behaviors towards dogs remain relatively unknown. This study delved into the intergenerational transmission of parenting styles from one's upbringing to caregiving for dogs. Using a mixed methods approach with 391 dog caregivers and 10 interviews, this study employed multivariate linear regression and thematic analysis. Permissive parenting exhibited an intergenerational effect, with those experiencing it being more likely to replicate the style with their dogs. Orientation towards dogs emerged as a crucial mediator, with protectionistic attitudes reducing the likelihood of replicating authoritarian parenting. Humanistic and protectionistic orientation increased the likelihood of compensatory permissive behaviors. Insights from interviews underscored the impact of perceived childhood experiences on adopting specific parenting behaviors. Ultimately, this study provides valuable insights that can contribute to the promotion of appropriate caregiving behaviors toward dogs. By drawing on our understanding of child-parent relationships, addressing the underlying elements of human-dog dynamics may lead to positive outcomes both for dogs and their caregivers.

Attachment style and social behavior in dogs from commercial breeding kennels

Much of the demand for purebred dogs in the USA is met by commercial breeding kennels (CBKs). In CBKs, adult dogs have been reported to exhibit signs of fear towards strangers. Social fear is a particular welfare concern as it may lead to acute and chronic stress in the kennel, and later, after dogs are retired and rehomed. Studies on pet and shelter dogs have shown that the type of attachment style dogs have with their caretakers is associated with their social behavior towards strangers. Thus, the aims of this study were to characterize the attachment styles of dogs from CBKs to their caretakers, and investigate relationships between the types of attachment styles observed and social fear behaviors in the dogs. Forty-eight adult dogs were tested from three CBKs in Indiana, USA. Twenty (41.67%) dogs were classified as secure, 16 (33.33%) as insecure ambivalent, 9 (18.75%) as insecure avoidant, and 3 (6.25%) as insecure disorganized. Generalized linear mixed-effects models showed that secure and ambivalent dogs approached the stranger more frequently (X2 = 24.636, p < 0.001), and solicited contact more frequently (X2 = 13.092, p = 0.004) than did avoidant dogs. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Tests showed that secure, ambivalent, and avoidant dogs all initially approached the stranger more quickly in the Paired-Effect test (when the caretaker was present) than in the Stranger Arena test (p < 0.05). Secure and ambivalent dogs also spent more time in proximity to (p < 0.001) and solicited more contact from (p < 0.01) the stranger in the Paired-Effect test than in the Stranger Arena test. These results suggest that there is an association between type of attachment style and fear behaviors towards a stranger in this sample of dogs. Understanding connections between attachment style and social fear, and their implications for stress and welfare in dogs from CBKs may help inform breeders’ socialization, social interactions, and related management practices. This in turn may help to reduce dogs’ social fear and enhance their long-term welfare outcomes in the kennel. These insights may also aid rehoming efforts, as breeders could potentially inform new owners about behaviors they might expect from their dogs, which might help avoid mismatches in expectations, and in so doing, help keep dogs in their homes.

Small animal review

There is huge diversity in form, behaviour, disease propensity and longevity in dogs. However, there is little research into variation in life expectancy between breeds.

Many faces of dominance: the manifestation of cohabiting companion dogs’ rank in competitive and non-competitive scenarios

There are indications that companion dogs of multi-dog households form a hierarchy, maintained by formal and agonistic dominance. Although it was found that the behaviour of dogs depends on their rank in several contexts, so far, the assessment of their rank itself has been based on owner-completed questionnaires. With this research we endeavoured to find associations between rank scores from the Dog Rank Assessment Questionnaire (DRA-Q) and cohabiting dogs’ behaviour in a competitive test (Toy Possession test—32 dog pairs) and a non-competitive, citizen science scenario (Greeting test—20 dog pairs). Based on the grabbing the toy first and keeping the toy at the end variables, the dogs’ rank score provided a reliable indication of the dominant and subordinate dogs’ behaviour in the Toy Possession test. Similarly, the occurrence of dominant and submissive behaviours in the Greeting Test showed a good match with the agonistic and leadership subscores of the composite rank score from the DRA-Q. Our results provide a pioneering case for validating a questionnaire-based rank scoring method with biologically meaningful behavioural tests in the case of companion dogs. The finer analysis of the results highlighted that in the case of a multi-question scoring system, some components might provide more effective prediction of the dogs’ rank-related behaviour in some situations, while other components are more relevant in others, with traits related to agonistic dominance having relevance across contexts.

Prediction of working outcomes in trainee dogs using the novel Assistance Dog Test Battery (ADTB)

Canine behaviour is commonly assessed using test batteries comprising a test protocol and ethogram scoring system. These are particularly valuable for assistance dog organisations as a tool for evaluating trainee dogs’ proficiency in fundamental skills. The goal of this study was to design and validate a new test battery to assess the suitability of trainee dogs for assistance work at different stages of the training programme. The main objective was to develop a machine-learning tool capable of predicting working outcomes. Accordingly, the novel Assistance Dog Test Battery (ADTB) was developed. Trainee assistance dogs participating in this research performed the test at 3 weeks and 10 weeks after starting formal training. The results from the univariate logistic regression analysis were used to select the variables for the reduced feature sets that were used for modelling. The machine learning models were built using the data collected at 3 and 10 weeks separately and predicted working outcomes with an area under the ROC curve of 0.74 and 0.84, respectively. This research demonstrated the relationship between the novel ADTB ethogram measures and working outcomes in assistance dogs. The machine learning model created using the data collected at 3 weeks achieved comparable performance to the state-of-the-art, while the model built using the data collected at 10 weeks substantially outperformed it. These preliminary results suggest that the ADTB is a reliable tool for the prediction of working outcomes in trainee assistance dogs. Hence, assistance dog organisations can reduce the cost of training by using model predictions as a guide for deciding which dogs to withdraw from training. The data collected and the code developed in this research are publicly available on Mendeley Data (https://doi.org/10.17632/5mzfpt455r.1) and GitHub, respectively (https://github.com/mmarcato/dog_ethogram/).

Physical properties of odorants affect behavior of trained detection dogs during close-quarters searches

Trained detection dogs have a unique ability to find the sources of target odors in complex fluid environments. How dogs derive information about the source of an odor from an odor plume comprised of odorants with different physical properties, such as diffusivity, is currently unknown. Two volatile chemicals associated with explosive detection, ammonia (NH3, derived from ammonium nitrate-based explosives) and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol (2E1H, associated with composition C4 plastic explosives) were used to ascertain the effects of the physical properties of odorants on the search behavior and motion of trained dogs. NH3 has a diffusivity 3.6 times that of 2E1H. Fourteen civilian detection dogs were recruited to train on each target odorant using controlled odor mimic permeation systems as training aids over 6 weeks and then tested in a controlled-environment search trial where behavior, motion, and search success were analyzed. Our results indicate the target-odorant influences search motion and time spent in the stages of searching, with dogs spending more time in larger areas while localizing NH3. This aligns with the greater diffusivity of NH3 driving diffusion-dominated odor transport when dogs are close to the odor source in contrast to the advection-driven transport of 2E1H at the same distances.

An In-Depth Look at Fonni's Dog Behavior under Different Outdoor Conditions.

This study aimed to investigate the common social and communicative behaviors of the Fonni's Dog under different outdoor conditions. For this study, 70 adult dogs (3-7 years; 32 intact males, 38 intact females) belonging to the Fonni's breed were used. A total of 35 dogs were kept in kennels and 35 were free-ranging dogs in their sheep/goat livestock units. A behavioral repertoire was adapted from the literature and an ethogram was filled in for each dog. All dogs were evaluated in the presence of the owner. Fisher's exact test, following Bonferroni's correction, was used to test possible differences in the categorical variables (presence or absence of the behavior) between free-ranging dogs and dogs kept in kennels. The study revealed that several categories of the dogs' body language were associated with the management condition. However, the breed motivations (guarding and defense of the territory) were satisfied both in kennel and in the animals who were free in the property. The current study suggests a good behavioral balance of the Fonni's Dogs which could be attributed to correct communication between dogs and owners.

The Relation between Plasma Nesfatin-1 Levels and Aggressive Behavior in Pit Bull Dogs.

Aggression is a prevalent and concerning behavioral issue in dogs. Pit Bull dogs, known for their high levels of aggression, are recognized as a focus of concern in society. In our study, we aimed to investigate the behavioral characteristics of Pit Bull dogs and explore the potential roles of peptides involved in the neurobiology of aggression. Initially, female, and male dogs underwent aggression tests, and their aggression levels were categorized. Plasma nesfatin-1, serotonin, oxytocin, and dopamine levels were quantified using ELISA, with blood samples collected after a 24 h fasting period and 2 h post-refeeding. Our findings indicate that aggression in Pit Bull dogs correlates with decreased plasma nesfatin-1, serotonin, and oxytocin levels, while dopamine levels increase. The study's findings indicate that fasted dogs exhibited lower plasma levels of nesfatin-1, serotonin, and dopamine, while plasma oxytocin levels were higher. Furthermore, while the research findings do not suggest a significant relationship between the severity of aggression and the gender of the dog, male Pit Bull breeds appear to have higher plasma nesfatin-1 and serotonin levels compared to their female counterparts. The study's findings demonstrate that nesfatin-1, serotonin, oxytocin, and dopamine play pivotal roles in Pit Bull dogs' aggression, indicating potential interactions among these neuropeptides at the central nervous system level.

Veterinary students’ proximity to and interpretation of a simulated “aggressive” dog before and after training

Dog “aggression” in the veterinary practice is commonplace. Therefore, student knowledge and education about dog behaviour and the ability to interpret “aggressive” behaviour is important from a human injury prevention and dog welfare perspective. The study aimed to compare first-year veterinary students’ perceived safest proximity to both an “aggressive” and non-reactive simulated dog, both before and after a teaching intervention about canine behaviour and a handling practical. It also examined student confidence and their ability to identify “aggressive” behaviours. Forty first year veterinary students took part in two surveys. Each survey included two videos: one of a simulated dog displaying “aggressive” behaviour, based on the ‘Canine Ladder of Aggression’; and another displaying non-reactive (passive behaviours without reaction to the participants) behaviours. Each video depicted the slow and consistent approach towards the virtual dog within a virtual indoor environment, and participants were asked to press stop if or when they would stop approaching the dog. In the “aggressive” scenario, there was a reduction in the approach-stop time from survey 1 (median = 17.8 s) to survey 2 (median = 15.2 s) in the intervention group (p = 0.018) but not in the control group (p = 0.147). Regarding confidence, there was a significant increase in the self-reported confidence rating relating to a participant’s ability to interpret canine behaviour in both the control (p = 0.011) and intervention (p = 0.003). In conclusion, these results indicate that students using approach-stop videos stayed further away from an “aggressive” virtual dog model if they had undertaken a canine behaviour educational intervention. This novel approach has the potential for further use in teaching and assessment of student knowledge and behaviour which may otherwise be difficult to demonstrate.

Impulsivity as a trait in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Impulsivity is a critical component of dog (Canis familiaris) behavior that owners often want to curtail. Though studies of dog impulsivity have examined their inability to wait and to inhibit inappropriate behaviors, it is not clear whether impulsivity is a behavioral trait with consistent characteristics across contexts. For this project, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate whether impulsivity exists as a behavioral trait in domestic dogs. Under a preregistered protocol, we processed over 10,000 bibliographic database records to uncover 13 articles with multiple impulsivity tasks assessed in the same subjects. Across 31 pairs of impulsivity tasks, 28 failed to detect a correlation in performance between tasks and three detected a correlation. For 15 correlations of impulsivity tasks with the owner's perception of their dog's impulsivity, 10 were not correlated, while five were correlated. A formal meta-analysis on one pair of tasks (A-not-B task and cylinder task) tested across seven different studies showed no overall correlation between the tasks. Our systematic review and meta-analysis found little indication of consistent relationships between impulsivity levels across tasks for dogs. Therefore, at the moment, we do not have good evidence of impulsivity as a behavioral trait that transfers across contexts, suggesting that perhaps we should focus on the context-specific nature of impulsivity in dogs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Positive Reinforcement Horse Training from a Dog Trainer’s Perspective

A personal account of a certified dog behavior consultant’s journey from primarily using punishment-based horse training techniques to applying the same kind of LIMA-based positive reinforcement used in her professional dog training career.

Building Client Networks and Maximising Your Resources

A report on how an Irish professional dog behavior consultant created a social media based network of past clients who were able to provide opportunities to learn and practice behavior modification skills without the direct supervision of the consultant. The structure of “The Alumni”’ is discussed alongside observations of the beneficial role such a network plays in a particularly challenging semi-rural Irish environment.

Possible effects of cannabidiol (CBD) administration on the vocal activity of healthy domestic dogs upon their temporary separation from caregivers

Recent human clinical studies indicate that cannabidiol (CBD), the primary non-addictive component of cannabis, possesses considerable therapeutic potentials. The purpose of the present study was to explore the possibility of effects of CBD administration on behaviors of healthy domestic dogs. It is well-known that when temporarily separated from their caregivers, they may show an increase in vocalization. Here the effects of CBD administration upon such vocal activity were assessed. Ten 4- to 7-year-old healthy dogs experienced temporary separation from their caregivers twice, once following the administration of CBD at 2.0 mg/kg/day over a 2-week-period, and once following the administration of the same amount of olive oil as placebo over the same length of period. When the behavioral assessment was conducted by computing the total duration of any vocal activity exhibited by the dogs before the separation from their caregivers and after the separation, it was found that all of the 10 participant dogs vocalized more often when being left alone (after the separation) than when being with their caregivers (before the separation), whether they had received the administration of CBD or placebo. Following the CBD administration, however, the degree of such increase was significantly less robust than that following the placebo administration (p < 0.01). As one of the possible explanations for the results. the author hypothesizes anxiolytic effects of CBD in healthy domestic dogs, as has been reported in humans.

Gut-Brain Axis Impact on Canine Anxiety Disorders: New Challenges for Behavioral Veterinary Medicine.

Anxiety disorders in dogs are ever-growing and represent an important concern in the veterinary behavior field. These disorders are often disregarded in veterinary clinical practice, negatively impacting the animal's and owner's quality of life. Moreover, these anxiety disorders can potentially result in the abandonment or euthanasia of dogs. Growing evidence shows that the gut microbiota is a central player in the gut-brain axis. A variety of microorganisms inhabit the intestines of dogs, which are essential in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. These microbes can impact mental health through several mechanisms, including metabolic, neural, endocrine, and immune-mediated pathways. The disruption of a balanced composition of resident commensal communities, or dysbiosis, is implicated in several pathological conditions, including mental disorders such as anxiety. Studies carried out in rodent models and humans demonstrate that the intestinal microbiota can influence mental health through these mechanisms, including anxiety disorders. Furthermore, novel therapeutic strategies using prebiotics and probiotics have been shown to ameliorate anxiety-related symptoms. However, regarding the canine veterinary behavior field, there is still a lack of insightful research on this topic. In this review, we explore the few but relevant studies performed on canine anxiety disorders. We agree that innovative bacterial therapeutical approaches for canine anxiety disorders will become a promising field of investigation and certainly pave the way for new approaches to these behavioral conditions.

Impacts of Puppy Early Life Experiences, Puppy-Purchasing Practices, and Owner Characteristics on Owner-Reported Problem Behaviours in a UK Pandemic Puppies Cohort at 21 Months of Age.

Problem behaviours are a leading cause of relinquishment and euthanasia of young dogs. Previous research has identified associations between owner-reported problem behaviours and risk factors, including how dogs were acquired as puppies, early socialisation experiences, and owners' experience levels. Puppies acquired during the 2020 phase of the UK COVID-19 pandemic ("Pandemic Puppies") were more likely to be exposed to many of these risk factors compared to puppies acquired in 2019; however, consequences for their adult behaviour are, as yet, unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the impact of these early-life and provenance-based risk factors, in addition to owner management strategies (including training methods) into early adulthood, upon adult dog behaviour aged 21 months. An online longitudinal cohort study of n = 985 Pandemic Puppies was conducted, recruited from a cohort of n = 4369 puppies originally surveyed in November-December 2020, which included data on how and why they were acquired and their socialisation/habituation experiences <16 weeks of age. Nearly all owners (96.7%) reported that their dog had exhibited at least one problem behaviour up to 21 months of age (median: 5; IQR: 3-7). Almost one third of dogs (30.9%) were reported to have displayed separation-related behaviours. Multivariable linear regression modelling revealed that owners reporting more problem behaviours were more likely to use multiple aversive training techniques (e.g., physical punishment), the use of which was notably high in this population (82.3%) compared to previous studies. Attendance at online puppy classes was the sole protective factor against owner use of aversive training methods. Almost one third of owners had underestimated how hard training their dog would be; this view was more likely among first-time owners. Urgent efforts are required to support this vulnerable population of dogs, including providing owner education regarding humane training techniques, to improve canine emotional health and avoid future relinquishment and/or behavioural euthanasia.

Development of a human-analogue, 3-symptom domain Dog ADHD and Functionality Rating Scale (DAFRS)

The family dog, in its natural environment, exhibits neuropsychological deficits redolent of human psychiatric disorders, including behaviours that are similar to human attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Based on standard questionnaire methods in humans, we aimed to develop and validate a detailed, psychometrically improved tool to assess owner views on relevant dog behaviours. We modified available questionnaires by adding items that allow for separate analysis of impulsivity, and items on functional impairment. We collected data from 1168 owners for different validation steps of the new questionnaire and, similarly to assessment of humans where teachers also evaluate as an expert control, we collected data from dog trainers. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis revealed 3 factors: inattention (IA), hyperactivity (H) and impulsivity (I), corresponding to all three human symptom dimensions in dogs. Test–retest analyses showed excellent agreement between measurements for all factors. Similarly to findings with humans, trainer-owner rating comparisons showed fair (IA) to moderate (H, I) agreement. As in humans, greater ADHD scores were associated with greater functional impairment scores. We suggest that in dogs, similarly to humans, parallel examination of (extreme) ADHD and functional impairment scores could help distinguish diagnosable individuals, after further validation of the questionnaire using a relevant behaviour test.

Development of a Dog Health Score Using an Artificial Intelligence Disease Prediction Algorithm Based on Multifaceted Data.

Detecting aberrant behaviors in dogs or observing emotional interactions between a dog and its owner may serve as indicators of potential canine diseases. However, dog owners typically struggle to assess or predict the health status of their pets independently. Consequently, there is a demand for a methodology enabling owners to evaluate their dogs' health based on everyday behavioral data. To address this need, we gathered individual canine data, including three months of standard daily activities (such as scratching, licking, swallowing, and sleeping), to train an AI model. This model identifies abnormal behaviors and quantifies each behavior as a numerical score, termed the "Health Score". This score is categorized into ten levels, where a higher score indicates a healthier state. Scores below 5 warrant medical consultation, while those above 5 are deemed healthy. We validated the baseline value of the Health Score against veterinarian diagnoses, achieving an 87.5% concordance rate. This validation confirms the reliability of the Health Score, which assesses canine health through daily activity monitoring, and is expected to significantly benefit dog owners who face challenges in determining the health status of their pets.

Feasibility of in-home electroencephalographic and actigraphy recordings in dogs.

Idiopathic epilepsy is a prevalent neurological disease in dogs. Dogs with epilepsy often present with behavioral comorbidities such as aggression, anxiety, and fear. These behaviors are consistent with pre, post, or interictal behaviors, prodromal changes, seizure-precipitating factors, or absence and focal seizures. The overlap in behavior presentations and lack of objective research methods for quantifying and classifying canine behavior makes determining the cause difficult. Behavioral comorbidities in addition to the task of caring for an epileptic animal have a significant negative impact on dog and caregiver quality of life. This pilot study aimed to assess the feasibility of a novel technology combination for behavior classification and epileptic seizure detection for a minimum 24-h recording in the dog's home environment. It was expected that combining electroencephalography (EEG), actigraphy, and questionnaires would be feasible in the majority of trials. A convenience sample of 10 community-owned dogs was instrumented with wireless video-EEG and actigraphy for up to 48 h of recording at their caregiver's home. Three questionnaires (maximum 137 questions) were completed over the recording period by caregivers to describe their dog's everyday behavior and habits. Six of the 10 included dogs had combined EEG and actigraphy recordings for a minimum of 24 h. This shows that in-home EEG and actigraphy recordings are possible in community-owned dogs and provides a basis for a prospective study examining the same technology combination in a larger sample size.